Accepted Abstracts--PALA 2004

Author

Title

Key Words

Not You, Not Me, But the Company: Discourse Participants and Metaphor in Business Correspondence

In written business communications, Politeness Theory (Brown and Levinson, 1987) has been widely used to describe pragmatic features of business documents. Among them, the requests as a speech act have drawn the attention of researchers due to its prevalence in business writing. In this study approximately 230 documents of internal correspondence (memos) from two Turkish companies written both in Turkish and English have been analysed from a politeness perspective.

The analysis of the requests found in the memos reveals linguistic behaviour related to politeness issues, which seem to be culturally determined. Almost all negative face-saving strategies found in the requests aim at impersonalizing the request by avoiding referring to the agent status of the receiver with respect to the requested act. As a result, personal references to the receiver and, to a lesser extent, to the sender are very limited. On the other hand, the company emerges as a discourse participant, the 'principal' in Goffmann's terminology, in the internal communications of the companies. Neither the sender nor the receiver is present in the text as individuals to the same degree as the company. This is especially true of cases where the text contains a face-threatening act, such as a request. Interestingly, the company is used in active sentences mostly in the agent role, while the "real" agents are carefully removed from the text with impersonalizing linguistic strategies such as passive.

Text World Theory, proposed and developed by Paul Werth (1994, 1995a, 1995b, 1997 and 1999), is a cognitive and pragmatic theory of reading. It deals with the whole text and its surrounding context and it is fundamentally 'experiential' i.e. it deals with real language, real situation and real people. The basic structure of Text world theory is that it consists of three layers: discourse world, text world, and sub-world. This paper is an attempt to establish a comprehensive analysis for Raymond Carver's short story What Do You Do In San Francisco? By employing the methodology of the Text World Approach along with examining the prominent stylistic features found across the story through repeating four portions of its main narrative. Such repetition comes, in fact, through repeating four key words, distributed throughout the narrator's flashback text world, i.e. 'work', 'the woman', 'the kids' and 'the name'. These repetitions generate meaning and suggest interpretive possibilities that have a link to the central theme of the story. My aim is to propose a radical new perspective on how its ambiguous text world is created.

I give short examples of several diverse forms of literature that make use of phenomenal patterns: First, early biblical interpretation, which focused on the poetic and prophetic qualities of scriptural language that imply a single ahistorical Author. Secondly, I briefly look at medieval alchemists' theories, which sought evidence for telos in analogous structures found in the "book of nature." Thirdly, I recall Freud's psychological analysis of animism, which he argues, "is the transfer of the structural relations of one's own psyche to the outer world"; and finally, I mention a number of structuralist narrative theorists, who have sought to locate authorial intentionality in the effect of poetics and textual relations. All of these areas, biblical exegesis, alchemy, animism, and structuralism have in common the tendency to posit an external agent responsible for the unexpected meanings found in phenomenal patterns.

To conclude, I note that the formal study of phenomenal patterns and their relationship to intentionality began in Western literature with Aristotle's Physics and Poetics. In these works, Aristotle criticizes the kinds of teleological ascriptions described immediately above which, he believed, irrationally posit an external agent. According to Aristotle, phenomenal patterns are chance events that may appear to have been "caused" by an external "intelligence" but are not.

In this paper we will provide an account of the application of the CONTAINER image schema and other subsidiary schemas to the study of part of the conceptual domain of cognition.

In cognitive linguistics, image schemas are defined as recurring non-propositional patterns of experience which allow us to structure images and perceptions (Johnson, 1987; Lakoff, 1987). Image schemas have been observed to interact in various ways and to be organized in terms of dependency relationships (Cienki, 1997; Clausner & Croft, 1999). In this view, the EXCESS and the FULL-EMPTY schemas are subsidiary to the CONTAINER schema (Peña, 2003). Our data from the domain of cognition seem to support this view, as in the expressions "to have something in mind" (CONTAINER), "overflow the memory" (CONTAINER plus EXCESS), or "empty-headed" (CONTAINER plus FULL-EMPTY).

We further note that subsidiary schemas are the natural result of the development of the logic of a non-subsidiary schema. Thus, a container may be full or empty if we place objects or a substance in its interior; if filled in excess it may overflow, and so on. This has consequences for the adequate understanding of the semantic implications of using image schemas in order to come to terms with the various aspects of the domain of cognition. For example, the expression "He filled his mind with many thoughts from the past" suggests that there is only one kind of thought the protagonist could have. Not so, however, "He put in his mind many thoughts from the past". Interestingly enough, "He emptied his mind of thoughts from the past" does not involve that there are no other thoughts in the protagonist's mind. The meaning implications of this expression and of "He took many thoughts from the past out of his mind" are very similar. Only one kind of thought is taken out and the protagonist still has other thoughts in mind. This asymmetry is best explained in terms of the logic of the CONTAINER schema in its relationship with the FULL-EMPTY schema. If we say that a container is filled (with something), we assume that before it was completely empty. If we say that it is emptied, we assume that it will no longer have anything in it. But if we set about the task of specifying that it was emptied "of" something, it is implied that there is still something else inside; otherwise, the specification would have been unnecessary. Meaning implications like this are part of the semantic make-up of many linguistic expressions which exploit image-schematic structure and deserve to be explored.

Recent work on cognitive science has demonstrated that conceptual metaphor can no longer be considered as a mere rhetorical device but a basic pattern for the conceptualization of the world (Lakoff, 1987, 1989; Lakoff & Johnson, 1999).Taking into account the cognitive poetics point of view on metaphor (see Stockwell, 2002; Semino and Culpeper, 2002) in this paper we intend to deal with the building of the main characters in the best-seller novel The Sculptress by Minnete Walters. In this respect, it will be seen how conceptual metaphors and image schemas play a leading role in the description of different characters of the novel.

The novel deals with the investigation carried out by a journalist of a awful crime committed by a mysterious woman. This is not an action novel, but rather the narrative is centered in the mental activity of the characters and in their presentation as psychologically complex individuals.

We notice that different conceptual metaphors are used for the conceptualization of the various mental processes performed by the characters. On the other hand, there is not a recurrent use of emotion metaphors. However, this contrast between emotions and thoughts has its reflection in the novel: recurrently, characters' rationality in this novel seems to be impaired by the interference of emotions. (e.g. She let some moments pass while common sense battled with the angry reproaches that were clamouring inside her head).

Concerning the description of the psyche of the characters, we have observed that conceptual metaphors such as UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING or BELIEVING IS EATING are relevant for the expression of the character's features. However, it seems that the most important metaphors for doing so have image schematic basis. Image schemas, as described by Johnson (1987) are abstract constructs of topological nature that serve us to conceptualize the world. For example, the main female characters are seen as closed containers. They are people that keep many secrets, in the case of the journalist they are revealed (they come out of the container), while in the case of the killer her thoughts remain enclosed in her mind. There are hardly 'literal' references to the protagonist's mental activities maybe because she is a mysterious woman and nobody knows what is going on in her mind, and when there is a description it is metaphorical in terms of the PATH image schema (e.g. Images, gleaned from things people had said, chased themselves across Roz's mind). Finally, the BALANCE image schema is used in order to conceptualize the unstable mental abilities of the sculptress (e.g. the balance of her mind was temporarily disturbed). We will take into account these and other conceptual mappings that are constantly used to characterize the main roles in this novel.

Uncovering the Emotive Aspect in "Reporting Accidents" in the Egyptian Media

Media Discourse is known for the diversity of its sub-genres. 'Reporting Accidents' - tales of accidents, disasters and crimes- is one of these sub-genres that have their own stylistic features. Nevertheless, 'Reporting Accidents' has never been dealt with as a separate sub-genre. Hence, this study aims at tackling the linguistic and stylistic features of 'Reporting Accidents'. A further objective is to find out how this genre is similar to and different from other related genres. The data explored in this study is drawn from a weekly Egyptian newspaper "Akhbar Al-hawadith" (Accidents News) which is specialised in reporting accidents.

The analysis of this data is based on a study of the narrative structure, the manipulation of the speech and thought presentation of the people involved in the narrative, the extensive use of figures of speech, besides other linguistic and stylistic features. The analysis also explores the presence of literariness in such genres. Furthermore, this paper deals with the emotive effect of such stylistic features. It expands upon the premise that information content and emotive effect are not mutually exclusive. On the contrary, the stylistic features of this sub-genre are exploited to have an emotive effect on the readers, hence, their involvement. Thus, the current study is both descriptive and interpretive: describing its stylistic features as well as interpreting the impact of such features on the readers.

New forms of research with ICT (Information and Communication Technologies)

Socrates - we read in Plato's Phaidros - didn't trust written texts. He believed, they talk to you as they were intelligent, but never answer your questions when you seek for deeper understanding, and never differ whom and when they tell their truth. Now, almost 2500 years later, the internet brings us back to a dialectic approach towards understanding.

The Internet and its possibilities for worldwide communication have opened a new chapter in world globalisation. There has been so far a focus on the possibilities of world wide connectivity in real time, the understanding grows that new Information and Communication Technologies offer revolutionary possibilities for worldwide cooperation, which can (and will) be a driving force in the creation of a global village. Chat, for example, is written communication in real time, informative texts, which can be connected to discussion forums, creating a mixture of direct and indirect communication. Lectures can be available as multimedia files independent from place and time, cut into small parts and connected via Hypertext to online published papers, mixing in a creative new way written and oral teaching. Especially Hypertext opens up a world of new possibilities to connect information far beyond the mere navigation tool, which it has been until today.

But - even though the Internet was originally invented at CERN (Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire) for the cooperation among scientists - it seems that science lost its interest after a euphoric decade of often utopian ideas about what might be possible in future. This attitude forgets that the Internet already offers totally new possibilities of knowledge acquisition and management, which do not only improve research and teaching possibilities, but also will be the daily life in the working environment of students. Still most Universities stick to old fashion lectures, where students gather at a certain place for a certain time and listen to a Professor, which is an unnecessary limitation not only for the possibilities of an intercultural exchange, but even more for a dialectic approach towards scientific cooperation.

REDES (Research for the Development of Empirical Studies) is a cooperation of Universities from all over the world. During a seminar in summer 2004 students from three REDES-Universities - Munich (Germany), Utrecht (Netherlands), and Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) - work together on research projects using the Internet for their communication. The paper shows how different means of communications served different functions of cooperation. It will give an overview of technical as well as cultural problems and show past and future examples for similar projects.

Language has never been an efficient medium, especially to writers who have been concerned with the accurate and faithful representation of truth through it. For the deconstructionist, writing is at best irrelevant to what it expresses and at worst a barrier to it because language, its medium, is unstable, empty, ambiguous, and even deceptive, never capturing the signified. Renaissance writers also faced manifold difficulties involved in writing in so unlikely, estranged, and unverisimilar a medium as defective language. Though it may be anachronistic to attribute post-modern ideas of language to the early modern writers by assuming that their notions and function of language are constant trough time, it seems a useful effort to discover and explore much earlier writers' inescapably modern assumptions, which nevertheless were conceived without modern vocabularies for describing, in any sense to which our terminology can intelligibly be applied.

While the awareness and conviction of the ultimate failure of language is much prevalent in recent art, we can trace back some of the basic ideas about the instability of language in the early modern period, particularly in the first English sonnet sequence, Sir Philip Sidney's Astrophil and Stella, in which a similar skepticism about the adequacy of language in modern terms can be traced. Nearly all of the sonnet sequences that followed Astrophil and Stella repeatedly return to this issue, which becomes the dominant trope in the later sequences. Sidney was concerned about representing what is in the heart and made this the focus of Astrophil and Stella, which begins with the most illustrious opening line, 'Loving in truth, and fain in verse my love to show'. Struggling to find the fit words to show his love, the poet is acutely aware of the discrepancy between what words can show and what is truly in his heart and actually makes this discrepancy the central concern in this sonnet. What he confronts in his struggle with language to show his love is the emptiness of language as signifier, not to be confounded with the signified. This paper aims to explore a very post-modern awareness of language represented in a number of sonnets from Astrophil and Stella, in which Astrophil/Sidney struggles and grapples with the limits of convention and the inability of language in what appear very post-modern terms. The discussion leads to a claim that Astrophil/Sidney virtually is a post- modern theorist of language lived in the early modern period.

Barney, Dr. Tom

Stylistics has concerned itself largely with the question of how readers make sense of literary texts, and this tendency is increasing. In this paper I wish rather to use the stylistic analysis of literary works to illuminate their underlying themes, to focus on the writer rather than the reader. I distinguish between the subject of a literary work - exemplified by, for example, plot, characters, the situation or phenomenon described - and its theme - what the subject symbolises, the work's psychological import, the writer's preoccupation. Themes and the ways they spring from writers' personal needs are matters which have been examined by some psychologists (e.g. Hudson (1972), Hudson and Jacot (1991), Storr (1976)) but hardly at all by stylisticians.

Many creative artists have characteristic themes and preoccupations to which they return again and again, and which spring from a tension between conflicting inner drives. As Moore (1984:vii) points out, 'a successful synthesis' of these conflicting drives also results in 'a unified and unique style plain for all to recognize'. It follows that we can expect to find the treatment of characteristic themes minutely encoded in literary language. Hampshire (1969:xv) has argued that an individual style suggests 'a theory… of the natural movements of the mind and of their proper expression'; these 'natural movements of the mind' leave a trail of linguistic evidence which can be closely analysed. Themes can thus be made manifest, and they in their turn provide evidence of the particular kind of discontent which drives an author to create.

I shall use a variety of literary examples to show not only how stylistic analysis can be used to illuminate the treatment of such themes and so the writer's motivations, but also that it can enable us to disinter themes which might otherwise remain hidden and which are sometimes unexpected.

This paper will consider verbal cliché as an important and underexamined stylistic resource in the work of modernist writers such as Proust, Joyce and Beckett.

The paper will argue that the conscious use of a worn-out discourse allowed these writers to interrogate Romantic ideas of literariness and the work of art. In their work, the phenomenon of decay in language, as well as life, brings into question the authority and consolations of past literary forms. The concept of cliché emerges in the wake of a Romantic aesthetic. Its etymology points us toward the new technologies for the reproduction of text, which produced both an anxious desire for originality and authenticity and its flip side - the consciousness of cliché. The mass dissemination of literature, I argue, foreshortens the shelf-life of certain literary effects, and creates a new climate for their reception. This paper explores how certain modernist writers respond to these developments, and use imaginative new ways to engage with and re-define familiar stylistic gestures.

Cliché is at the cusp of written and spoken language, bearing the mark of textual reproduction but also circulating freely in oral discourse. It is difficult to say where a locution moves from being idiom, a forceful feature of discourse connecting literature to the life of a language, to being stereotype: mechanical, impersonal and trite. As the site where these ideas come into conflict, cliché plays a key role in revealing the values that attach to both writing and speech in the modernist aesthetic.

The re-engineering that modernist writers such as Joyce and Beckett perform on familiar locutions can reveal semantic and stylistic reserves that have been occluded, as well as creating new meanings and effects. This process also brings to light the relationship between figurative language and cognition. Degenerative metaphor, as linguistics describes cliché, allows these writers to interrogate the habits of expression that condition our thinking. The relationship between literal and figurative language itself comes to seem an unstable one, and new insights about the relationship between language, self and world emerge.

Ogut, Ozlem

This paper aims to analyze "Snow", the most recent novel by the internationally acclaimed novelist Orhan Pamuk who uses a strikingly innovative stylistic technique that places the novel both in time and timelessness. While in the foreground the novel seems to reflect the macrocosmic social and political scenes of Turkey, commenting on contemporary issues such as radical Islam, modernism, and military interventions, it does so by structuring the whole novel around the central metaphor of a snowflake, a traditional mystic symbol, that creates an atmosphere of indlessness. The setting, the theme and the form of the novel, all draw on the specific characteristics of a snowflake that is unique, has a perfectly symmetrical hexagonal shape, and like crystal reflects multiple colors.

Ka, the protagonist poet of Pamuk's novel, places 19 poems he wrote during his stay in Snow Palace Hotel in the snowbound city Kars, along the three main axes of a drawing of a snowflake, which he names the axes of Reason, Imagination and Memory, with the poem titled "I, Ka" at the center. Like the crystallike snowflake that absorbs and reflects the world around it to gradually dissolve them, the events and the characters that inspired the poems dissolve and blend in with each other. Opposing forces in the novel balance each other out as in the perfect symmetry of the snowflake as Ka experiences the present, dreaming of his future happiness in the city of his past, but this time with the daughter of the owner of the Snow Palace Hotel in Kars, the love of his life. Indeed, Ka, in his old grey coat, encounters in this white city people whose lives become inextricably entangled with his past and his future.

My paper will explore the literariness of Marcel Duchamp's notion of "literary painting" which he attributes to his work The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even, also known as the Large Glass (1915-23). Duchamp presents the notion as a corrective against the emphasis on the visual dimension of painting and a way of testing the border relations between visual and verbal which he finds inherent in both modernist writing and visual art.

Literary painting in Duchamp's sense, I suggest, can be understood in two principal ways. According to the first understanding, common among interpretations of The Bride Stripped Bare, the designation refers to the painting insofar as it resists a primarily visual appreciation while aspiring to possess an effective literary character. The painting models itself on highly distinct literary examples - Alfred Jarry, Raymond Roussel, and the Gertrude Stein of Tender Buttons - in an attempt to ask of its reader what they very specifically ask of theirs.

A second, more radical understanding of what is meant by literary painting is revealed by Duchamp's cover designs for the Surrealist journal View (1945). The cover designs allude to both the Large Glass and the Green Box (1934), a closely related work consisting of recycled working notes and drawings. Together the View covers rephrase the literary-visual aspect of the relation of these two earlier works specifically in terms of the concept of the infra-thin, which the designs introduce both textually (via a caption) and iconically (via an illustration).

According to the second understanding, a painting has the possibility of becoming, under certain conditions and through certain procedures, an object of literary discourse. Through ekphrasis, narration, or rhetorical invention, for instance, a painting may "cross over" into a literary text. Yet Duchamp's solution to the problem of an overly "retinal" art cannot be to continue painting in, or replace painting with, a literary mode of production. Rather the challenge of literary painting will be to manifest only an "infra-thin" degree of the literariness (or literary potential) inherent in a given painting - that is, to present no more than a vivid sign of the painting's potential for becoming a distinct literary object.

My paper will analyze Duchamp's procedural remarks on achieving such an "infra-thin" literary manifestation on the surface of painting. In addition to considering the definition of literariness these remarks assume, I will argue that they constitute a poetics applying to both literary and visual practices and thus provide a method for studying intersections between the two.

The linguistic analysis of literary texts has been regarded with suspicion by many literary critics. Sometimes stylisticians try to revisit critics' subjective and impressionistic opinions to test them out or to back them up through quantitative studies of literary works. In this vein, in this paper I will attempt to examine the linguistic evidence for and against the intuitive criticism of Hemingway's novels by a computer-assisted corpus linguistic method. Literary critics such as Meyers 1972, Cowley 1962 and Weeks 1960 claim that Hemingway's style changed from his early novels to his later ones. The early novels are said to be simple, and the later more elaborate. The present paper will undertake a comparative study of Hemingway's early novels and later ones via corpus linguistic and statistical analysis.

William Carlos Williams's poem "The Yachts" details an idyllic yacht race which transforms, in the poet's mind, into a horrific vision of arms, faces, and bodies being "thrown recklessly" as they are "cut aside" by the boats.

With the final image, Williams ends the poem without explanation or excuses for the abrupt change of imagery. The final image has been interpreted by many scholars as Williams's critique on social ideals and U.S. economic conditions at the time of the poem. Scholars have no qualms at accepting this interpretation, and many have looked for evidence within his letters and other writings that would point to the influence of such a disturbing image.

For example, Paul Mariani ties "The Yachts" and Dante's Inferno through the use of terza rima and the image of Dante riding in the boat over the waters of the damned. Mariani, also, relates the image to Williams's letters discussing Pound's book Jefferson and/or Mussolini and Williams's own political views. Though these easily can be seen as an explanation for where Williams found inspiration for the image, there still remains the question of how the metaphor works to convey the intended meaning. How does the reader understand the inherent message of the poem to be a critique on social ideals and economic conditions, if they are not familiar with the works that supposedly influenced Williams? Does the poem fail to convey this meaning if the reader is unaware of Williams's opinion? The poem does not reference Williams's influences nor does it explicitly state what the meaning is in the final image, yet I would assert the poem provides sufficient information to the reader to convey its meaning.

Since the poem does convey its meaning, then another explanation for how the poem is successful must be created. Fauconnier and Turner's blending theory provides insight into how the metaphor works. With the blending theory, the relationship between the two parts of the metaphor, the human relationship/conflict and the yacht race, is fully examined and shows how the metaphor does not only affect the final image but also images throughout the poem. The analysis also shows that the poem cannot be fully explained by the standard cognitive theory of Lakoff and Johnson because a simple mapping of the source domain onto the target domain does not occur. The double-scope blend of the human relations blend and the yacht race blend (both already the product of blending) provides for emergent structures which are not initially apparent. The blending theory allows for a detailed analysis of the metaphor through the use of diagraming and listing of the vocabulary in relation to the inputs. Fauconnier and Turner's blending theory provides a thorough approach to analyzing "The Yachts."

Neverwinter Nights, the most recent epic three-dimensional computerized role-playing game by BioWare, situates its human players in a world of beasts, magic and various action oriented storylines. The game player is supplied with software that allows the individual to create their own "worlds" using space, objects, language and human character forms. For the field of literacy research, Neverwinter Nights offers an opportunity to examine literacy in terms of current views of literacy as developed from a physical world where being in existence and having understanding is based on a cognitive and socially constructed identity; as well as current views of literacy developed for the purpose of situated people in a world they create, using identities and cognitive and social platforms they imagine. In a sense, my research is a meta cognitive examination of multiple literacies. I will present my research as a multimodal discourse analysis through my experience as a persona in Neverwinter Nights; and also by comparing this virtual literacy experience with the human literacy experience that is common to our everyday lives. My presentation will include insights into the nature of cognitively created "worlds" and how literacies exist and occur in these "worlds" as well as insights into the different "worlds" we create for our everyday roles of educator, friend, family member, student, etc. My presentation will include a close look at the human as portrayed in Neverwinter Nights, the interpretations that can be made, the preconceived notions of health, body and mind, as well as the assumptions made by BioWare as to the common literacies needed to participate in this "world". My audience will hopefully be able to receive insights into common literacy practices perhaps not fully considered yet as true multimodal discourse forms; and they will also hopefully gain a better knowledge of how we as individuals conceive our "self" and how we would see our "self" as an "other" in a self-constructed world based on our imagination.

This paper finds its source in the tension that operates between two of Ezra Pound's pronouncements, both of which are hard-wired into the fabric of his poetic and critical work: "Every allegedly great age is an age of translations," and "It can't be all in one language." While Pound's practice of translation has recently been the focus of a few excellent studies, the second term of the unlikely equation, namely the stubborn presence of foreign languages in his works-with the notable exception of his exuberant and expansive use of Chinese- is cast aside, surprisingly enough, in most discussions. The inevitable result is that interpretations of Pound's poetics have been too one-sidedly determined by translation. Without denying the importance of Pound's revolutionary and controversial practice of translation, I would like to foreground the multilingual temptations of his texts. In effect, a work that espouses a poetics of translation, presenting a series of somewhat domesticated adaptations as opposed to texts in the original, would seem to celebrate monolingualism, more representative of a French Mallarmean vein than of Pound's multilingualism.

I propose to look at how foreign languages, in the original and in translation, shape Pound's modernist poetics. Taken synchronically, the two quotations might reveal a discrepancy between his literary theory and practice, between the imagined ideal work and an inevitably lesser realization. Whereas the critic extols the virtues of a poetics guided by translation, the modernist poet acknowledges that translation, a consequence of the collapsed monument of language, can only hope to reduce the chaos among the ruins of Babel. Taken diachronically, the declarations also help trace the increasing role of foreign languages and multilingualism in Pound's work. A challenge for poet-critics, at least since Dante and Du Bellay, has been to create a vernacular literary language free from the jealous hold of the official literary tongue. Pound inscribes himself in this tradition, only to supersede it by developing a literary language that challenges the very idea of a national literature. The resistance to translation marked by the refusal of linguistic uniformity and the resilience of the foreign within a primarily English text-itself informed by translation-creates an estrangement effect, a token of literariness. Indeed, the idea of poetic language as foreign is something Pound takes very literally: whereas for Mallarmé it is the vernacular itself that is made strange, for Pound, poetry is made strange by becoming polyglot.

The object of my interest is the problem of interrelation between the norm and the rhetoric figure or metabola discussed on the example of the odes of Georgian eulogists (12th-13th centuries) - Shavteli's "Abdul-Mesia" and Chakhrukhadze's "Tamariani". My choice was conditioned by the form and idea of these odes, which create the basis for the abundance of metabolas.

Shavteli's "Abdul-Mesia" and Chakhrukhadze's "Tamariani" are the highly organized homophony of the rhythmic-musical sonority based on the rich internal and external rhythms. The language forms of different levels (old, new, dialectal, occasional) and the skillfully selected variants of phonetic, grammatical, derivative and lexical elements are used to serve the purpose of this homophony not being violated.

Language is characterized by redundancy, to put it in other words, the language elements are repeated in speech, which guarantees the understanding of the language information in spite of the mistakes made during the communication. This is the autocorrection, which is possible only when the general number of violations does not exceed the level of redundancy. Proceeding from the character of the eulogists' odes very often the metabolas move so for away from the norm that they cause quite a different explanation on the part of scholars or simply remain incomprehensible.

The paper deals with the following cases of metaplasms: aphesis - loss of a sound at the beginning of the word, syncope - omitting a sound from the middle of the word, apocope - cutting off the end of the word, syneresis, synesis, merging of consonants, epenthesis or infixation, introduction of a sound into the word, paragoge - addition of affixes at the end of the word, syllepsis and translation.

Any form in a verse proceeds from the demands of its phonetic organization. The poets' unbounded freedom is determined by the nature of the language. It is the language that is the invisible bridle of every license. The norm or the zero level is beyond the common use of the language.

Theories of politeness, (eg. Brown and Levinson [1978] 1987), and of impoliteness, (eg. Culpeper 1996 and Lachenicht 1980) rarely consider the effects of their face-oriented strategies outside of the context of a single turn. While Culpeper et al. (2003) do consider both how impoliteness pans out in extended discourse and the role of prosody in conveying impoliteness, we don't consider the effects that manipulating or exploiting interactant expectations, through the use of specific turn taking mechanisms, can have in the production of impolite face damaging utterances. The broad aim of this paper, then, is to explore the role of Preference Organization (cf. Sacks 1992), which, when coupled with the concept of Conductivity in questions (cf. Quirk et al. 1985), can give rise to extremely powerful face damaging acts. More specifically, the paper will consider and discuss the dynamic verbal interplay between individuals using preference organization and conductivity for impolite purposes, within such confrontational discourses as car parking disputes, military training programmes and within restaurant kitchens. The conclusions drawn here, in impoliteness, will have important implications for both politeness theory in particular and for discourse studies in general.

Traditional accounts of free indirect thought (like free indirect speech, a sub-category of free indirect discourse) have identified the early nineteenth century as the moment of its appearance in the English novel, often pinpointing Jane Austen as the style's first practitioner. This paper challenges this view, showing that free indirect thought is widespread in the novels of the late eighteenth century, for example those of Fanny Burney and Charlotte Smith. I examine the intellectual and cultural contexts of the period, in the belief that a full account of how a style emerges requires an understanding of the literary-historical background. New styles, this paper argues, do not just arise spontaneously as a result of the creative genius of a particular writer. Instead, in M.M. Bakhtin's words, 'new forms of artistic visualization prepare themselves slowly, over centuries; a given epoch can do no more than create optimal conditions for the final ripening and realization of a new form.'

This paper aims to explore Kate Chopin's The Story of an Hour from a cognitive poetics perspective. The analysis emphasizes an integration of language and literature and draws upon theories developed in the general field of cognitive poetics (Stockwell 2002; Gavins and Steen 2003). For the purposes of this research, the analysis investigates the writer's use of different types of deictic expressions and shows how such use guides the reader to create the text word, leading to a better understanding/exploration of Chopin's characters and themes. The investigation reveals how the protagonist, Mrs. Mallard, reacted to the death of her husband searching for identity, freedom and the bright future.This paper attempts to explore the text world in which a feminist character challenges the traditional view of marriage, love, and individuality in a male-dominated society.

Ross, Haj

Freeman, Don

Freeman, Margaret H.

Rice, Claiborne

Steenberg, Mette

Semino, Elena

Brandt, Line

ON COGNITIVE APPRAOCHES TO LITERATURE

 Organiser: Michael Burke

(Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam)

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ABSTRACTS

Cognition, Style, and Poetics: Toward a Theory of Literature

Margaret H. Freeman

The short answer to the question posed by this session: "What do cognitive approaches to stylistics add to the stylistician's interpretative toolkit and/or to any other literary theoretical approach?" is: "A theory of literature that encompasses the text, the text-producer, and the text-processor." The long answer involves a definition of the term cognitive and an explanation of what I mean by "a theory of literature." With respect to the first, I define "cognitive" as it is used in Cognitive Linguistics (CL); that is, not in its general sense of anything to do with the mind, but specifically as it refers to a particular theoretical account of the conceptual workings of the embodied mind.

In Semino and Culpeper's (2002) introduction to their volume on cognitive stylistics, they differentiate the ways in which contributors situate themselves in relation to CL. Whereas some "see cognitive stylistics as part of the cognitive linguistics paradigm," "others treat cognitive linguistics as one of the cognitive theories or paradigms that can feed into cognitive stylistics" (x). I take a different view. Cognitive Linguistics is itself an interdisciplinary field, including approaches drawn from such diverse fields as cultural and social anthropology, psychology, neuroscience, and so on (see the forthcoming Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics 2004 for an overview). Since language is the medium of all literary texts, it is hard to imagine what "cognitive theories or paradigms" relevant to literary texts are not subsumed under the still developing field of Cognitive Linguistics (unless "cognitive" is being used in the broadest, and thus trivial, sense). When Semino and Culpeper's contributors point out the existing weaknesses of CL as it is applied to literary studies, these weaknesses, I would argue, do not arise from the failure of CL theory itself (certainly, I have not yet found criticism that shows this) but from the failure of not having as yet broadened its scope to include all aspects of a literary text.

The distinction Semino and Culpeper make is thus more apparent than real: although Cognitive Stylistics (CS) and Cognitive Poetics (CP) rose historically from somewhat different emphases, they nevertheless are converging at the same point. CS developed from stylistics, which focused, as its name suggests, on the formal qualities of textual style; CP developed more generally in at least two directions: from Reuven Tsur's (1992, 1998, 2003) work, whose influences include findings from psychology, New Criticism, and Russian Formalism, and from the more CL-oriented work reflected in Stockwell (2002) and Gavins and Steen (2003). Both, however, are concerned with exploring the processes by which the structure and affects of literary texts contribute to an understanding of human cognitive mechanisms. Whether the focus is on illuminating the literary work or the human mind, it seems to me that the work of all these approaches is doing both. I will argue that whereas CS draws from various theories in cognitive science as it finds them heuristically useful in illuminating texts, CP-CL situates itself within a coherent and unified theoretical framework, as practiced by the West Coast Cognitive Linguists (see references for partial list). This framework, however much still under development, enables practitioners of CP to develop a cognitive theory of literature, as well as revealing gaps in CL theory that still need to be filled. Using as an example a poetic text, I show what a CP theory of literature might look like.

References

Cuckyens, Hubert, and Dirk Geeraerts. 2004. Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. In press.

Gavins, Joanna, & Gerard Steen, eds. 2003. Cognitive Poetics in practice. London and New York: Routledge.

Semino, Elena, & Jonathan Culpeper, eds. 2002. Cognitive stylistics: Language and cognition in text analysis. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Stockwell, Peter. 2002. Cognitive Poetics: An introduction. London: Routledge.

Tsur, Reuven. 1992. Toward a theory of Cognitive Poetics. Amsterdam: North Holland.

--. 1998. Poetic Rhythm--structure and performance: An empirical study in Cognitive Poetics. Berne: Peter Lang.

--. 2003. On the shore of nothingness: A study in cognitive poetics. Exeter, UK & Charlottesville, VA: Imprint Academic.

Turner, Mark. 1996. The literary mind. New York & Oxford: Oxford University Press.

The West Coast Cognitive Linguists:

Fauconnier, George, & Mark Turner. 2002. The way we think: Conceptual blending and the mind's hidden complexities. New York: Basic Books.

Lakoff, George, & Mark Johnson. 1980. Metaphors we live by. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press.

--. 1998. Philosophy in the flesh. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press.

Langacker , Ronald W. 1987. Foundations of cognitive grammar. Volume I: Theoretical perspectives. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

--. 1991. Foundations of cognitive grammar. Volume II: Descriptive application. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Talmy, Leonard. 2000. Toward a cognitive semantics. Vol. I: Concept structuring systems. Vol. II: Typology and process in concept structuring. Cambridge, MA & London: The MIT Press.

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Using a Measurement of Subjectivity in Stylistic Analysis

Claiborne Rice
(University of Louisiana at Lafayette)

Theme session participants have been asked to address the question, "What do cognitive approaches to the study of literature add to the stylistician's interpretative toolkit?" This paper will argue that the ability to provide one or two specific tools to an all-purpose toolkit does not form a strong argument for any particular approach to the analysis of literature or literary style. Rather, by providing an overarching theoretical framework that comprehends language behavior on the individual and the social scale, Cognitive Poetics facilitates communication between literary and linguistic approaches to style that proves beneficial to both. By mining discoveries within cognitive linguistics in order to utilize them for analyzing literature, Cognitive Poetics becomes a channel of new tools for literary stylistics. Likewise, characteristic approaches to literary language suggest cognitive approaches to language in general.
To illustrate this process, several texts will be analyzed using a method for the detailed measurement of subjectivity developed and described by Mirna Pit (2003a, 2003b). The principle of subjectivity as defined and developed by Langacker on the basis of data from a variety of languages has proven useful for identifying the intensity of reader interaction prompted by different poems (Rice 2002). Pit successfully applies specific measures of subjectivity to forensic language to describe the degree of involvement a speaker conveys. It will be shown that readers of poetry are aware enough of the degrees of subjectivity available for expression in language to use expressions of subjectivity in poetry for creating personas attributed to a poem's speaker or writer. The development and refining of Langacker's notion of subjectivity in both literary and non-literary analyses continues to benefit both stylistics and linguistics in general.

References
Pit, Mirna. "Textual Indications of Subjectivity and Their Relation with Causal Connectives." Multidisciplinary Approaches to Discourse. Netherlands, October 22th-25th, 2003.
Pit, Mirna. How to Express Yourself with a Causal Connective: Subjectivity
and Causal Connectives in Dutch, German and French. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2003.
Rice, Claiborne. "Poetic Space: Critical Applications of Cognitive Linguistics to Poetry." Dissertation. University of Georgia, 2002.

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How Cognition Can Augment Stylistic Analysis

Michael Burke

(Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam)

As a mode of literary criticism, stylistics has traditionally focussed on the formal properties of style for persuasive and/or disportive ends. This is to be expected, given the fundamental rhetorical roots of stylistics and the aesthetic nature of literary texts. Indeed, even in this contextualised age of stylistic analysis, the effects of such bottom-up linguistic devices on our top-down mental processes are still very much an important part of the interpretative equation. However, with the advent of cognitive approaches to literature, some understandable confusion has arisen among a number of stylisticians. This has found form in the assumption that the addition of a cognitive dimension to stylistic analysis must, by default, mean an emphasis on 'reductiveness' in interpretation and a de-emphasis on the role that culture, language and style can play in literary meaning-making processes. This viewpoint, however, though logical, is arguably somewhat misguided.

In this essentially practical session, primarily, though not exclusively, aimed at stylisticians who are 'agnostic' or even 'sceptical' to cognitive approaches to literature, I hope to show just what a cognitive approach can add to current contextualised stylistic analysis. In order to achieve this, some relevant cognitive tools will be applied to literary texts, in conjunction with some existing stylistic ones. This will be done in an attempt to show how both approaches are in fact complementary rather than mutually exclusive. The aims of this essentially didactic presentation therefore will be to show how cognition can augment stylistic analysis and to suggest that the inclusion of a cognitive dimension in the domain of stylistics is something that should be welcomed rather than distrusted.

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Schemas in Literary Analysis: The Mutually Motivated Hypothesis

Mette Steenberg

(Aarhus Universitet)

In this paper I will argue that the most promising contribution from the cognitive sciences to the study of literature is the notion of schema. The history and development of this notion is long and has lead to various definitions: one main tendency emphasises the culturally embedded discursive representation of knowledge (scripts (Abelson & Schank, 1977), frames (Fillmore, 1977), ICM´s (Lakoff, 1987) and text-world theory (Werth, 1999)), while another main tendency emphasises the way phenomenological experience constrains semantics (Force Dynamics (Talmy, 1988) and image-schemas (Johnson, 1987)). I do not intend to survey the particular developments of these definitions here but will argue in favour of the general hypothesis: linguistic structures stand in a mutually motivated relationship with patterns of thought and behaviour. Still, how we go from the figurative to the conceptual level continues to be one of the less understood parts of the cognitive approach to the study of literature, particularly within research on metaphor the issue is controversial (cf. Steen 2002). Taking the mutually motivated hypothesis for granted (cognitive linguistics has successfully demonstrated, that the relationship of form and content is highly motivated and that linguistic forms not only re-presents ideas but actually shape the forms of our reasoning), the issue becomes less controversial. According to my working definition of schemas as dynamic, micro-narrative structures (Steenberg, forthcoming), in which I try to combine the two above-mentioned trends in schema theory, I claim that texts in general are structured according to a general schema, e.g. the barrier schema (Talmy, 1988), giving rise to numerous image-metaphors that figuratively represent resistance, impediment, letting etc. These schemas, however skeletal, develop dynamically when applied to literary texts into content dense narratives as the story unfolds by means of image-metaphors adding flesh to the schematic body. I will demonstrate how such a schema structures the text and how the schema prompts figurative language at the same time as these contribute to the unfolding of the dynamic schema.

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Textual Analysis in a Cognitive Semiotics Perspective

Line Brandt

(Center for Semiotics, Aarhus Universitet)

Using a short fictional text for exemplification, it will be demonstrated how a framework for literary analysis might take shape, unifying work done in linguistics, including cognitive semantics, traditional literary studies, and cognitive semiotics. Special attention is paid to the enunciational aspect of language, i.e. the inherent displays of subjectivity owing to the existence of a communicative situation underlying any utterance, written or spoken. An implicit condition of any piece of discourse is the presence of an enunciator, an addressee, shared attention and a temporal as well as spatial groundedness, although the latter condition is often suspended in literary enunciation. This enunciational ground affects description and evaluation ('framing'), and is also manifest in other expressions of subjectivity, such as the epistemic status of propositions, affective attitude, epistemic stance pertaining to belief investment - 'veridiction' - and origin of information - 'evidentiality'. A four-layered network of semiotic blends of comprehensive mental spaces is proposed as a diagrammatic means of illustrating the process of reading and interpreting a literary text. This diagrammatic structure is intended as an outline of a cognitive framework for studying how enunciation affects semantic content: viewpoint structure, framing, epistemic investment, affective investment, changes in evaluation due to shifts in perspective, and exploring the possibilities of enunciational structure including embedded enunciation and blended voices (cp. free indirect speech), as well as how the relation between semantic structure and rhetorical means affects the 'temperature' of a text and the style of genre, and, finally, how a reading supports subsequent literary interpretations.

This approach to the study of literature conceives of the endeavour of cognitive stylistics as two-directional: since literary text is made up of language and language is motivated by cognition, literature may serve as a resource for attaining information about the cognitive toolkit allowing these explicit manifestations. Conversely, the attentional atunement to the cognitive strategies and schemas available to us can prove a constructive supplement to unreflected artistic inspiration, encouraging skilful application of the principles and potentials discovered, which when exploited may yield advantages both for writers and for readers. It is suggested that this two-fold prospect is an essential benefit of the cognitive approach to literature: studying literature to gain insight into the mind and its inventions alike.

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Figurative Language and the Representation of Consciousness in Fiction

Elena Semino

(Lancaster University)

A central characteristic of fiction is that it can give us the illusion of accessing directly something that we cannot access in 'real' life, namely the consciousness of (fictional) others. In a recent book (Consciousness and the Novel, 2002), David Lodge has restated the centrality of the representation of consciousness to literature generally and the novel in particular, and has related it to current debates on the nature of consciousness itself within cognitive science. Lodge points out that one of the difficulties scientists have in researching consciousness is that consciousness is a subjective, first-person phenomenon, while science tends to deal with 'objective' phenomena from a third-person perspective. Literature, in contrast, typically deals with the specificity of personal experience, and therefore provides 'a record of human consciousness, the richest and most comprehensive that we have' (p. 10) and 'a kind of knowledge about consciousness which is complementary to scientific knowledge' (p. 16).

In this paper I focus specifically on literary representations of 'qualia' - the wide range of specific, qualitative experiences that we have as a result of being conscious, such as experiencing the freshness of mountain air, the pain of migraine, or the misery of unrequited love. Lodge recognizes that one of the primary means literature has to render qualia is the use of figurative language, and particularly metaphor and simile. I will discuss a range of extracts from novels where metaphors and similes are used to represent particular types of qualia, including particularly bodily/sensorial experiences such as pain (e.g. Virginia Woolf's description of neck pain as 'feeling hands tightening at the back of her neck' in 'Lappin and Lapinova'). My main aim is to investigate in more depth than Lodge does why and how metaphors and similes are used in representing qualia. In trying to answer these questions, I will draw from recent developments in metaphor theory and cognitive science.

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What are the challenges when a dub poet such as Lillian Allen wants to re-produce Jamaican English Creole in written form? When she "commits" her poetry to the page, she is faced with the paradoxes of working in a phonetic alphabet which, in English, is many things in addition to phonetic. English spellings are so complex and so highly standardised that some of their most important functions are to do with group membership and power.

Using a social semiotic approach, the paper looks at several written poems in Allen's Women Do This Every Day in which there are orthographic variations on the words "this", "you", and "rhythm". It begins with Sebba's ideological approach to creole spellings in the British context, in which these spellings are signals of ideological distance from 'English'. I go on to explore the meanings of 'English' in this light, closely relating its meanings to a range of issues in postcolonial theories of language and literacy, and to gender, sexuality, and race. This approach uses critical discourse analysis to make explicit the language issues often explored, but not rigorously described, by critics in postcolonial literature.

In this proposal we attempt to analyze some metaphorical expressions which constitute linguistic realizations of a thorny phenomenon which deserves some explanation in terms of domain ascription. Our analysis is embedded within the Cognitive Linguistics framework, where metaphor is defined in terms of a set of correspondences between a source and a target domain (see Lakoff and Johnson, 1999 and Lakoff, 1993). The case of emotions provides us with a very fruitful and illustrative domain from the point of view of metaphorical construal from the point of view of Cognitive Linguistics (see Kövecses, 1990). For instance, in the example Her own intense excitement had given way to a hollow feeling in her stomach, a hollow feeling is not a feeling which merits no attention, but a feeling which has the property of causing a feeling of hollowness. The adjective makes reference to a subdomain of the parent domain of feelings. A superficial analysis of the example can mislead us into believing that it is the metaphorical system EMOTIONS ARE CONTAINERS that allows for the largely intangible domain of feelings to be reconceptualized in image-schematic terms. In this light, a hollow feeling is perceived as if it were lacking importance since it is devoid of any content inside. However, a more refined examination of this occurrence leads us to conclude that the subdomain which is profiled by the adjective calls for a different metaphor in order to be felicitously interpreted: A PERSON IS A CONTAINER FOR EMOTIONS. If an emotion causes someone to feel as if hollow, the person is seen as a container empty of emotions. Finally, the phrase in her stomach makes us refine our analysis further and take the metaphor DIFFERENT (RELEVANT) PARTS OF THE BODY ARE CONTAINERS FOR EMOTIONS as the underlying motivating device. We also consider other examples like There was a sad, empty hole (inside me) in the same light as the previous example. In it, a person is mapped onto a container as mediated by the PEOPLE ARE CONTAINERS metaphor. The well-understood concept of a hole inside a bounded region serves as a model for the comprehension of the more abstract cognitive domain of bad feelings. It is interesting to observe that bad feeling acts both as the corresponding target entity of hole, as well as a more specific subdomain of the parent domain of person. Moreover, the tendency of blending theory research to often focus on novel and idiosyncratic conceptualizations leads us to think that all these examples could be analyzed within this framework. Blending theorists would assert that it is the emergent structure of the blend that makes this construal feasible (see Fauconnier, 1994 and Ruiz de Mendoza, 1998 for a different version of blending). The example Jane wanted to fill in the hollow of longing that pierced John is analyzed in this connection.

This proposal studies the lexical item empty within the framework of Cognitive Linguistics. With this aim in mind, we account for the meaning of this lexeme in terms of some of the structuring principles of reality which Lakoff (1987: 68) proposes, mainly metaphor, metonymy, and image-schemas. Metaphor has been defined as a mapping across domains where a conceptual domain, the target, which is usually abstract, draws some conceptual material from a more concrete domain of experience, the source (see Lakoff and Johnson, 1999 and Lakoff, 1987). There has been some controversy regarding the definition of metonymy. Ruiz de Mendoza (2000) has argued that metonymy is a mapping within domains. The criterial feature which distinguishes metaphor from metonymy is the domain-external nature of the former and the domain-internal character of the latter. Finally, image-schemas are preconceptual knowledge structures based on experience (see Johnson, 1987). First, the FULL-EMPTY image-schema has been found to lie at the base of the adjectival occurrences of the lexical item empty. In turn, this image-schematic structure provides the basic blueprint for the construction of some metaphorical systems (e.g. THE MIND IS A CONTAINER FOR THOUGHTS and THE MIND IS A CONTAINER FOR EMOTIONALLY LOADED THOUGHTS, as in Her mind was completely blank, empty of thought or feeling). In the case of expressions like I feel empty, where no specification of the item of which someone feels empty is provided, we are encouraged to resolve this instance of semantic incompleteness, as guided by a relevance-driven process which is partly cued by the presence of the verb feel, and recover the interpretation I feel empty of emotion and energy as part of the explicature of the expression. Second, empty as a verb can be studied in terms of Dik's (1997) distinction between actions and processes. It is interesting to observe that both actions like He emptied the contents out into the palm of his hand and processes like The Washougal empties into the Columbia River near Portland can be studied in terms of Goldberg's (1995) caused-motion construction, which can be interpreted in the light of the interaction of several image-schemas (FORCE, PATH, CONTAINER). Finally, the noun empties is understood as undergoing a process of metonymical development whereby the lexeme empties stands for empty bottles. This would be an instance of what Ruiz de Mendoza (2000) has called target-in-source metonymy.

Crashaw is a metaphysical poet in the non-Donnean or non-Herbertian sense. While Herbert's poetry exhibits an art of plainness, Crashaw's is flamboyant, luxuriant, and extravagant. Also, while in Donne's imagery the brain dominates, the senses govern Crashaw's imagery. In elucidating Crashaw's lavishly sensuous imagery, much attention has been paid to his poem "The Weeper," "the most notoriously baroque poem in English." Austin Warren's comments aptly encapsulate the scholarship on "The Weeper": "Crashaw's imagery runs in streams; the streams run together; image turns into image. . . . By temperament and conviction, he was a believer in the miraculous; and his aesthetic method may be interpreted as a genuine equivalent of his belief, as its translation into a rhetoric of metamorphosis." Metamorphosis is a basic nature of the grotesque image: "the grotesque starts when the exaggeration reaches fantastic dimension, [say,] the human nose being transformed into a snout or beak," as Bakhtin states. Critics such as Praz and Warren have touched upon the grotesque quality of Crashaw's imagery in their essays. I propose to go one step further to expound upon his grotesque imagery. The term "grotesque" derives from grottesco, which was coined in Renaissance Italy to refer to a style of ornamentation that consisted of human and animal forms, fantastically interwoven with fruits and flowers. A jumble of disparate and discordant elements is therefore the sine qua non of the grotesque. Philip Thompson calls our attention to the most central nature of the grotesque: "the unresolved clash of incompatibles in work and in response." It is this unsettled conflict of incompatibles that separates the grotesque from other compositions, such as caricature or irony, which are also born of some sort of juxtaposition of opposites. A good example of the grotesque image is Giuseppe Arcimboldo's transformation of a human head into a bunch of fruits and vegetables in his painting Summer. Arcimboldo's painting exhibits a rhetoric of metamorphosis wherein the metonymic congruence of fruits and a man is rendered metaphorically incongruous. This is exactly the case in Crashaw's imagery of tears: "Eyes are vocall, Teares have Tongues." My paper is an attempt to elucidate Crashaw's grotesque images with recourse to Arcimboldo's paintings and thereby to create a conversation between poetry and painting.

First of all, I would like to say that I am quite a beginner in making researches, that is why I am deeply interested in gaining the experience in the field of studying literary works. My research interests include Intercultural reading and empirical studies of literary texts.

As all the members of Ukrainian REDES Group are affiliated to the Chair of Lexicology and Stylistics of the English language at Kyiv National Linguistic University, the purpose of my study is to find linguo-stylistic peculiarities of ambiguity creation in Henry James's The Turn of the Screw. I want to prove empirically that people after reading the text are more likely to think that the governess is a bit crazy and there are no ghosts in the story. It would be quite difficult to read the whole text, so I think I will give two extracts to each of two groups of people who will participate in my research. My preliminary hypothesis is - the ghosts are the creation of the governess's imagination.

At the present stage, I have studied the theoretical material and am now deciding what passages to choose for reading. I am also working on the questionnaire, which will precede and follow the reading of the extracts. Another point is choosing people for the research. I would like to make my research intercultural, that is why I want to have two groups of people with different nationalities. I hope that other members of the REDES project will help me to do this.

Mendes, Milena

Love affairs characterized by an explicit age gap between a man and a woman may not be taken equally by different societies. Besides, people's attitudes might differ according to who is older or younger, as in some cultures it is common to see alliances between much older men and younger women, whereas the opposite is socially criticized. As literary texts reflect to a certain extent cultural backgrounds or critically reflect on it, they might push readers towards accepting or condemning certain behavioural patterns.

The present empirical study aims at investigating readers' reactions towards age gap relationships in real and fictional worlds. In addition, it aims to demonstrate whether the audience's worldview is influenced by literary texts and whether their attitudes change after reading.

The research is carried out among students from the Humanities in Brazil and Ukraine. Our initial hypothesis is that, as these students are constantly in touch with written texts, their attitudes will be affected by the literary passages. The participants will answer questions before and after reading extracts in which relationships marked by an explicit age gap are described as they depict involvement between an older man/older woman and a younger woman/younger man. As the investigation is carried out in these two countries, assumably different in their national traditions and mentality, the results may also enable us to investigate cultural differences and/or similarities in relation to this issue.

J.R.R. Tolkien does not enjoy a reputation as one of the mid-twentieth century's moderately important literary figures; he is more commonly dismissed as merely a commercially-successful bestseller. His writing style in particular is seldom given much attention in literary critical discourse. Recently, there has been a renewed interest in the author and his works, arising from the success of the cinematic installments of The Lord of the Rings. However, the author's current popularity may in fact act as a deterrent to critical activity. This paper aims to revisit Tolkien's stylistic virtues as a writer.

Critics like Stimpson (1969) and Raffel (1977) have made paradoxical claims about the stylistic value of The Lord of the Rings. On the one hand, they say, the work is couched in highly archaic forms; on the other hand, that the author's banal use of language makes the work unliterary. In an attempt to understand the linguistic motivation which lies behind Tolkien's stylistic choices, Shippey (2003) studies Tolkien's pronouncements on the topic of 'sound and sense', but not always accurately. In this paper, I wish to challenge some common critical assumptions about the language of The Lord of the Rings.

I will be exploring two key issues which can help reassess Tolkien's reputation as a literary writer: Tolkien's use of 'high style' and his handling of iconicity. I will begin by examining Tolkien's beliefs about the value of high style when writing about 'heroic' matters. By analyzing examples of high style in key passages of the novel in the light of Tolkien's stylistic precepts, some critical objections to Tolkien's archaism can be overcome.

Despite Tolkien's documented interest in the relation between sound and sense (i.e. modes of iconicity), critics to date have not examined or considered closely the importance of sound-sense relationships in his work. In the second part of the paper I will lay out some details of Tolkien's engagement with the topic in an attempt to further Shippey's work, and then show how his beliefs about 'phonetic fitness' served to structure and determine his writing strategies.

In her essay "Strangeness," Lyn Hejinian writes, "metonymy conserves perception of the worlds of the objects, conserves their quiddity, their particular precisions, it is a scientific description" (40). In cognitive linguistics there exists paralellism between visual and intellectual operations. Most of all "vision involves the remarkable ability to focus at will on various features of our perceptual array, to pick out one object from a background, or to differentiate fine features in their early categorizations. All of these operations have parallels in intellectual acts," as Mark Johnson in "The Body in the Mind" wrote (108). Seeing is a metonymic act. Our eyes always focus on a chosen element from a perceptual field, selecting the most salient features of the object. "We see only the leaves and branches of the trees close in around the house" (My Life 12).

In my presentation I suggest that postmodern aesthetics of bits, scraps, echoes and overtones favors metonymy, which maintains "the intactness and discreteness of particulars," over metaphor based on a more fixed code ("Strangeness" 38).

Due to its randomness and arbitrariness; its paratactic nature, metonymy, much more efficiently than a metaphor, conveys an indeterminacy of referent. In metonymy signifiers are related to one another in a contiguous way. The principle is combination rather than selection. Metonymy is not aligned with an associative, so called paradigmatic axis, but rather a syntagmatic axis, based on the property of linearity and combination.

Freeing a signifier from the conventions of the signified; providing the particulars, with "multiple vanishing points;" supplying a whole context of associations metonymy enables a contemporary poet to preserve all the hypothetical meanings in their indeterminacy ("Strangeness" 38).

By looking at the current studies of metonymy in cognitive linguistics and selected poems by Lyn Hejinian and Jorie Graham, I will show how metonymy suits the postmodern "rhizomatic" aesthetics which Jorie Graham in "Notes on the Reality of the Self," calls "the dance of non-discovery" (Materialism 160).

Flickering bits, motes, sparkles of light are the dominant mode of perception in those two poets. Precisely metonymy is used to convey such a mode of perception; to convey acentered, nonhierarchical, nonsignifying poetics of postmodernism.

In the 2003 summer issue of Poetics Today Richard van Oort claims that the cognitive paradigm, in its current constitution, is not ready to revolutionalize literary studies, "ultimately because the cognitive model lacks a theory of representation adequate to the task of interpreting human culture" (p. 239). I will argue that a cognitive poetics has to be grounded in such a diachronic theory of representation, rather than remaining with synchronic descriptions of causal mechanisms in representation. I will also argue that such a grounding is necessary for the development of a cognitive poetics in relation to traditional stylistics as well as in relation to traditional - and poststructural - literary theory.

First, referring to van Oort 2003, Deacon 1997, Gardenfors 1996, 2000a, Tomasello 1999, Gans 1999, we shall see that a description of the originary anthropological function of the sign as emerging from a deferral of indexical reference involves a critique of cognitive models that - relying exclusively on ontogenetic development, excluding phylogeny - claim basic perceptual categories to be re-presented in language, as constructed by emergent metaphors (cf. e.g. Lakoff & Johnson 1980, Turner 1996). We need to be careful when making parallels between symbolic functions and sensimotor functions so that we do not reverse the causal order as regards the origin of symbolic categories. That is, when dealing with universal categories like metaphor and narrative we should, as van Oort puts it, counter biological reductionism not with cultural idealism but with anthropological minimalism.

Secondly, also building on the diachronic grounding of representation, the cognitive 'turn' in linguistics/semiotics should be considered in relation to a semiotic 'turn' in cognitive science (see e.g. Brandt 2000, Soneson 1998, 2000, Gardenfors 2000b). The project of a cognitive poetics remains a 'stone-age humanism' if we do not acknowledge that we have to start theorizing from a minimal anthropological thesis as regards the dawn of man and proceed to a cognitive semiotics where literary (situated) acts of communication are seen both in terms of how we cognize the world and how we construct meaning in this world. Here, one basic tenet in our daily practice - be it in relation to stylistics or literary theory - must be that meaning comes before truth, which means that a cognitive poetics, semantico-semiotically, cannot be reduced to presymbolic cognitive processes. This means that cognitive poetics seen only as an extension of contextualized stylistics runs the risk of using cognitive science simply as a crutch if it assimilates terminologies of e.g. conceptual metaphor and blending, and, at the same time, shies away from the fact that human categories are grounded in the economy of an unrestricted sign-system.

Having outlined the necessary background in a diachronic theory of the sign, I proceed to discuss in more practical terms the relation of cognitive poetics to stylistics and literary theory. I claim that cognitive poetics offers more inclusive semantico-semiotic possibilities than quasi-cognitive models of 'critical' discourse analysis. The tools and methods afforded by cognitive science must be our first concern when we consider methodologies that are not restricted by traditional theoretical approaches. Cognitive poetics has a relation to introspective hermenutics, and we must see to it that our cognitive models of e.g. conceptual metaphor and blending are functional so that we can use one tool for each specific problem we come across, and we must also relate functional relations between methodologies.

Cognitive poetics cannot be an 'appendix' to stylistics, neither can it be seen to add to literary studies if is not introduced in relation to a comprehensive theory of the sign. The objective here is to show the necessity of an anthropo-semiotic grounding for cognitive poetics - meta-theoretically as well as in brief practical analyses.

Broadly speaking, my work in this area aims to show how 'stylistics' can benefit from developments in 'corpus linguistics'. Specifically, I have been focussing on an empirical methodology for identifying what might be the (statistically) 'key' words of a text, using the Keywords facility in Mike Scott's WordSmith Tools (1999). At PALA (2001) in Budapest, I related the notion of keywords to Enkvist's (1964, 1973) 'style-markers' (items which result from a significant differential between the densities of linguistic features in a text and the densities of corresponding linguistic features in a contextually related norm). I also explored the keywords of character-talk in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (e.g. Romeo's top keywords are 'beauty', 'love' and 'death'). Since then, I have been extending this work in two directions. Firstly, the analysis I could do on Romeo and Juliet was constrained by the fact that no character speaks a vast quantity of words, and so it was not statistically viable to explore, for example, relationships between keywords. To resolve this, I decided to focus on the dramatic character-type of 'lovers', and so collected lovers-talk from two other love-tragedies, Antony and Cleopatra and Othello, and also from love-comedies (e.g. A Midsummer Night's Dream). Secondly, in my Budapest study, I noted that keywords tended to fall into particular semantic fields (e.g. in Romeo and Juliet, some of the Nurse's keywords relate to bodily matters). This led me to wonder whether, if I tagged words for semantic field (i.e. added semantic annotation) and then found out which semantic fields were key, I would find out something different. This issue relates to discussions in stylistics about form and content. My paper in New York will present some results from this extended work.

Proper names are used in many ways (Vandelanotte & Willemse 2002, Dancygier 2003); they are also often used metonymically (Washington for U.S. government). In longer stretches of text, though, where narrative comprehension requires set-up and maintenance of complex frames (Emmott 1997), proper names can evoke frames and schemas which structure the narrative itself. Such cases are the topic of this paper.

Several uses will be considered, but the paper will focus on those which also involve the processes of blending and decompression (defined in Fauconnier and Turner 2002). Decompression (or a conceptual "split") allowing two frames to be profiled simultaneously is prompted when two names can refer to one person (e.g., a stage name, or pen name, and the real name). In a story, the two names may evoke different periods in a person's life or contrasting perceptions of the public and private persona. In J. Raban's novel, a character looks at a new acquaintance who used to be a singer: "Diana Pym and Julie Midnight... They sat together on his mother's sofa [...], and he couldn't make them coalesce into a single image." These incompatible perceptions of Diana (and the two names) are then consistently used in structuring the ensuing narrative.

Proper names also play a frame-evoking role in specialized constructions. At the end of a scene where the narrator and his girlfriend have dinner together before he leaves for a long trip, the narrator comments: "Dinner was our Reno. Before the check came, we'd had our divorce". The first sentence is an example of a construction (easily replicated in sentences such as The exam was Bob's Waterloo), where the type of experience evoked by the proper name (Reno=immediate divorce, Waterloo=irrevocable defeat), originally attributed to another participant in a familiar frame, is now attributed to the referent of the genitive form our or Bob's. The paper presents such constructions as relying (1) on mechanisms of conceptual integration (see Fauconnier and Turner's [2002] discussion of their XYZ construction); (2) on the so far undocumented use of the genitive form (cf. Nikiforidou 1991); and (3) on frame-metonymic evocation prompted by proper names. In the narrative, the construction frames the events in a new way (e.g., the dinner scene is not interpreted as the end of the affair until Reno is mentioned). It also creates a blended frame (restaurant scenario plus "divorce"), which is then used as a contextual frame in the ensuing discourse.

Andrea Camilleri is a Sicilian novelist who has written several crime novels featuring Chief Inspector Salvo Montalbano as the official police hero. The Montalbano novels are of interest to the stylistician for a variety of reasons: Montalbano is a development of the prototypical detective whose broad developmental line may be traced from Sherlock Holmes, through Reeder, touching on Marlowe, on to Maigret and then Carvalho. This development is of interest from the standpoint of analysing form and structure of the crime novel. However, this developmental line is also of interest inasmuch as it unveils changes in the behaviour of the detective which reflect changes in the world the detective lives in. Thus Montalbano provides a historical and social overview of modern Sicilian society. More important still, the fact that Montalbano is a prototype extends his sphere of relevance from the purely local (Sicilian), to the national, and even international, spheres, despite the fact that he does not set foot outside his native island. This is all the more noteworthy since, paradoxically, the language in which the novel is written is a mixture of Sicilian and Italian in order to capture the "flavour" of the communicative exchanges and their social significance. In this day and age of globalisation, the novel stands for the rights of individual and local identity. Finally, Camilleri is an excellent writer from a linguistic standpoint, deploying foregrounding to great effect. The article will examine one aspect of Camilleri's linguistic technique. Employing Short and Semino's (in press) model of speech and thought presentation, the article will investigate the literary/textual/communicative functions performed by the deployment of S&TP in the Montalbano novels. Time permitting, an attempt will be made to uncover whether there is any significant link between S&TP and the other aspects of the novels mentioned above.

This paper looks back to Jakobson's (1960) classical formulation of the poetic function of language as a solution to the question of `literariness' or `verbal art'. The poetic function is the aesthetics of natural language. It looks forward in that it treats Jakobsonian aesthetics as the input to pragmatic processing, agreeing with Kiparsky 1987 that this is its major deficiency. These two dimensions are used to consider the `logical status of fictional discourse' (Searle, 1975, Schmidt, 1976, Rorty, 1982). My aim is to work out in full the tacit Jakobson position that fictionality is the automatic outcome of the poetic function to the degree that its empirical criterion is expressed in terms of the referential function. Fiction is aestheticized reference and truth. The poetic function is the set (Einstellung) to the message as such, and hence is intentional. Fictionality occurs only to the degree that this is also empirically oriented to the `denotative' machinery of language. This problematizes the referential use of language to various degrees, and hence ostensively demands extra pragmatic processing. Referential machinery includes referring expressions, pro-forms, deixis, presupposition triggers, word and sentence sense, background information, everything in terms of which truth conditions are grasped and propositional attitudes assigned. Empirically, non-fictional reference becomes equivalent to fictional reference in a reciprocal two-way relationship, a constitutive device within a text. This makes truth ambiguous as between literal truth, where the referential function dominates, and the truth of fiction. Fiction -aestheticized reference and truth claims - are also held to be seriously true, but not transparently so. Thus, fictions, although not usable as the basis for action, can however in their turn affect perceptions of the plausibility of what is in the `truth box'. Faced with this problematic input, the search for relevance is altered, especially with respect to the explicatures involved in constructing a propositional form and embedding it in attitudes. In serious art writing, where the poetic function is dominant, relevance can then best be achieved by treating the text as `world-metaphorical'. It is an analog of what we believe is true of the actual world, to which it is strictly equivalent, in terms of which it must be read, and which it can actually effect. Fact and fiction can be in dynamic interplay. This sets the stage for a wide array of weak implicatures (Sperber and Wilson, 1996).

For decades literature and linguistics have been regarded as separate areas of study. However, in recent times some authors have explored the possibility of applying a linguistic theory to the analysis of literary works (cf. Steen 1994, Semino & Culpeper, 2002). It is the purpose of this paper to show how the analytical tools offered by Cognitive Semantics provide the grounds for the construction of characters and shed new light on some aspects of the structure of a play. In order to do so, we shall apply Johnson's (1987) theory of image-schemas to the study of the dramatic structure of Bernard Shaw's play Pygmalion and of the development of its two main characters, i.e. Henry Higgins and Eliza Doolittle. Each of them will be found to act according to the logic of a different image schema, namely, the circle and the path image schemas, which explains in some way the problems of their relationship and the end of the play. Furthermore, we shall argue that the force schema together with its related image-schemas have a prominent role in the weaving of the plot; and we shall observe that the reactions of most of the characters of the play can also be interpreted in relation to the logic of the FORCE image-schema. We shall also contend that the whole play is built on Lakoff's (1993) metaphor purposeful activities are journeys. Finally, on the basis of our analysis we shall explore in what ways Cognitive Semantics can help to develop an adequate theory of literature.

Metonymy has long been considered one of the most important mechanisms for meaning extension (Taylor, 1989; Bartsch, 2002). Initially, the great majority of attention to this phenomenon was mainly devoted to studying its role in polysemy and semantic change (cf. Stern, 1931; Ullmann, 1962). Within Cognitive Semantics the relationship between metonymy and polysemy was first analysed by Brugman (1981) who contended that all the spatial senses of the preposition "over" are connected by means of metonymic mappings. However, the study of metonymy as a tool for other processes of meaning extension such as word recategorisation has largely been neglected. In this paper, we shall employ some of the analytical tools provided by Cognitive Linguistics in order to explore the role metonymy plays in two patterns of recategorisation in English: the shift from noun to verb (e.g. He turned his head away from them vs. He headed the ball to Andrew) and the subcategorial conversion of a noun from countable to mass (e.g. She's got two cats vs. There was cat all over the road) . On the basis of our analysis we shall contend that the basic motivation for conversion in English is the shortening of the conceptual distance that exists between the word forms that encode the source and target domains of a metonymic mapping. We shall also suggest that subcategorial conversion only takes place in those cases where the target is a subdomain of the source. We shall further argue that conversion may be motivated both by the search for prominence and the economy principle. Finally, we shall discuss the consequences of metonymy in recategorisation both on morphological and syntactic grounds.

The fundamental concern of my analysis is how referential semantics (Larson and Segal) accounts for the language in Keats' ode "To Autumn," a poem in which Keats' particular mindset is to employ a method, or poetic idea of language, his concept of negative capability. Keats' claim is that poetic truth arises when one is unfettered by the linear constraints of rational or truth conditional language that leads one to a proposed knowledge. "I mean Negative Capability, that is when a man is capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteris [sic], doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact and reason" (Letters, 193). Some literary critics, including Helen Vendler, suggest that Keats finally achieves this poetic effect and that it is embodied in his ode "To Autumn."

"To Autumn" is an intriguing poem in which to apply a referential approach to semantics precisely because the premises of referential semantics are counter to the concept of negative capability. I begin my analysis with referential semantics' premise of compositionality, which strives to trace a tight fit between syntax and semantics, so that the meaning of "To Autumn" is intertwined and inseparable from the poem's form. The premise of compositionality is further predicated on formal logic's predicate/argument structures, and complicates a referential analysis of the ode from the outset, since "To Autumn" is missing the argument side of the equation. The analysis of the missing referent propels my inquiry into the issue of "empty proper names" as a way to meaning within the referential framework. This approach, however, presents theoretical problems of its own.

Through my analysis, I propose that these two polar ways of theorizing language, while initially creating a fundamental paradox, eventually lead to a point of convergence within the concept of deferral.

Cognitive stylistics, a rapidly expanding field, approaches literary texts with a unique explanatory power of how readers perceive and interpret literary work(s). This paper focuses on the process of characterization in two narratives: J.M. Coetzee's Disgrace and Jeffrey Archer's Kane and Abel. It draws upon a cognitive stylistics model of characterization proposed by Culpeper (2001/2002) among other pioneering cognitive stylistics and linguistics theories. Also of interest to this study is the evaluation of the narratives (Coetzee has been awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature/ 2003 and his individual works have won a number of other prizes, while Archer's narrative is considered a masterpiece which received considerable attention and whose author was described as a 'genius' who is 'probably the greatest storyteller of our age' -comments quoted from the Daily Telegraph and Mail on Sunday respectively-) Hence, the assumption this study proposes is a link between cognitive interpretation or what goes on inside the mind of the reader in order to understand and judge a particular character, and the overall evaluation of the text(s) as a whole.

Arabic, a language rich with its vocabulary, is crammed with a myriad of idiomatic expressions in which the use of numerals is a phenomenon worth attention. This is especially true of idioms and proverbs in Egypt. This study investigates such idioms and proverbs which include any numeral, starting from 1 through 1000 in Egyptian Arabic. Data are collected from four major dictionaries of Arabic, of which Taymur's Al-'Amthaal al-Sha`biyyah , and Badawi and Hinds' Dictionary of Egyptian Arabic represent the major bulk of this work. The idioms and proverbs are analyzed at the lexical and syntactic levels, in so far as they represent social values, morals and wisdom as sociocultural aspects of Egyptians. Moreover, the study investigates the meanings that are conveyed by such expressions with numerals that go beyond enumeration per se. It also investigates the value and significance of some numerals that stand for basic cultural symbols or concepts typical of Egyptians. All these idioms and proverbs are investigated through analyzing them according to their macro and micro semantic fields. Results are then related to the idology of Egyptians.It is hoped that this study succeeds in providing an account of such dioms and proverbs that adds to the field of idioms and idiomaticity, an area that is still in dire need for further research.

The study of satire has always been the domain of historians, philosophers and literary critics. Recently however, linguists have shown interest in the analysis of satirical discourse. Attardo (1994,2002) discussed it in relation to humour and Simpson (2000 and forthcoming), offered a linguistic model (SMUT) that accommodates satirical writings.

The current study attempts to answer the following questions:

1. What tools do Egyptian satirists employ in their writings in order to point out "follies and faults"? so as "to cleanse the society of its impurities"?

2. Are the features associated with Egyptian satirical discourse culture specific?

To this end ten texts written by famous Egyptian satirists are analysed. And, it has been noted that satirists employ a wide range of stylistic features: unusual collocations, neologism, word-play, paradox and parody …etc. Finally, the study hopes to offer a model that would accommodate Egyptian satirical discourse.

Many of the writers of science fiction are professional scientists who write fictions about the future based on real and actual scientific research. They create new worlds or they incorporate new potential components in a world similar to the one we live in today and attempt to calculate what impact new scientific technologies may have on human life if they are put into practice.

One of the things I find interesting to investigate is how different authors use very old tools when they create their disparate futures. Myths are surprisingly important ingredients in this stories and one of my main questions is why it is so. SF-literature and the frequent use of myths are important to analyze from several perspectives. I will discuss what happens when new worlds are moulded from old worlds in the form of narrative structures, archetypes and themes. It is important to ask why stories about new possibilities are built on bases of ancient substance. It is also important to study what happens to both the new and the old material under these alterations in time and thus in the different world views that are interlaced.

I will discuss one of the dangers I find obvious; Is this narrative structures part of attempts to establish scientific changes in so called natural and thereby unavoidable patterns of development for humans as a kind? Are the myths used to maintain aged values and traditions or do the authors have other reasons to build their stories on fundaments of religious and ancient myths? Furthermore there are universal intentions in the narrative patterns in the genre which under the veil of myths describe general human conditions, development or expansion as unchangeable magnitudes. I will use Greg Bears novel Blood Music as an example on how myths are used in modern SF-literature and how myths are important elements authors use to make sense of unintelligible occurrences. Are we only incarcerated in old narrative systems or are there more serious problems in this approach to science and development? The frequent use of myths in the genre may have an impact on our way to relate to science and this genre is important to examine from perspectives that look towards both the future and the history.

This paper will describe an intriguing phenomenon, with corresponding theoretical and practical applications, that involves a delicate issue of writing matchmaking profiles for the English speaking audience. Having surfed the numerous Internet sites offering dating services, I have realised that in many cases the applicants' success depends on the content of their description headline/essay. While there is no big problem to express oneself for those whose native language is English, a certain hardship arises for speakers of other languages. The suppliants then turn to English-speaking matchmakers whose amateur agencies, being actively demanded, are multiplying as rapidly as rabbits, quantity often ousting quality. A university diploma of teaching English is flapped by the matchmakers like a triumph flag, with no particular reference to the specificity of such a fastidious service as finding a person's true match. The matters of gender related issues, cultural differences, stereotypes, and preferences are ignored, let alone the applicant's individual voice and style. Profiles are cloned, differing merely by the objects' physical parameters. The Internet is being invaded by digital sleaze.

At this point we have come to the question of widening the range of ESP, the latter's primary focus traditionally being one of the following: Business English; English for Economists; English for Science and Technology; English for Medicine; English for MBA studies; Teaching English as a Foreign Language for Non-native Speakers; English for Tourism and Hospitality. The necessity of developing this list by including English for Matchmaking has become obvious, if not urgent. Alongside with teaching the general and specific issues of language (e.g. stylistics, pragmatics, theory and practice of translation, etc.), English for Matchmaking also has to cover such areas as pedagogy, pshychology, social studies, social work, networking and other related issues vital for success of the people's relationship-to-build.

Phraseology is a comparatively young field of linguistics which was founded and formed as a self-contained linguistic discipline during the mid-1960s due to the expansive research of Russian linguists. About twenty years later, in early eighties it was recognized in Western Europe and America.

As one of the most outstanding modern lexicographers, the author of the famous and reliable Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English Anthony P. Cowie, pointing out to indisputable progress of the soviet school of phraseological analysis and its influence on the world linguistics, underlines: "Recognition of phraseology as an academic discipline within linguistics - the term itself, like the adjective 'phraseological', reflects Eastern European usage - is evident not only from vigorous and widespread research activity, but also from the publication of several specialized dictionaries reflecting one theoretical perspective or another… 'Classical' Russian theory, with its later extensions and modifications, is probably the most pervasive influence at work in current phraseological studies and is unrivalled in its application to the design and compilation of dictionaries" [Cowie 1998: 2].

The history of typological research may be traced back to Wilhelm von Humboldt at least. But typologists studied first of all morphology then syntax and has only recently made few attempts to pass on to lexis. As to phraseology it has never been an object of typological research. Some serious steps here has been undertaken by Dmitry Dobrovol'sky (one of the editors of Lexicology, an international journal on the structure of vocabulary, in Berlin - New York) who maintains the idea of typological relevance of phraseology (which was suggested by the linguists of Prof. Vladimir Arakin's typological school in Moscow) and who may be considered as a founder of a new structural typological methods of phraseological research [Dobrovol'sky 1990].

Being a disciple of both Vladimir Arakin's typological and Alexander Kunin's phraseological schools, I believe that typological approach to phraseology and idiom studies is a most perspective one. Dmitry Dobrovol'sky's method is promising here. For structural typology the most important are types of dependence of principles of organization of the phraseological system of a particular language on some other (primary ones as related to phraseology) subsystems of the language. Raising and answering questions within the problem will expose the degree of importance of phraseological system, with its structural principals, for linguistic typology as a whole.

Methodology of analysis is based on finding out implications between peculiarities of organization of different elements of the language structure which enables us to add phraseological features to the typological model of the language.

The paper is targeted at demonstrating some basic universal implications in the field of phraseology of English, German and Swedish and the way they work for typological linguistics.

During the process of idiomatic nomination based on metaphor the unknown referent is compared to the known one and is likened to it. The most frequent isomorphic types of metaphorical transference in the meaning of the idiom components are as follows:

1. Transference of meaning of the initial word combination which is based on the general likeness of two actions: wag one's tongue (Eng.), seine Zunge wetzen (Ger.), låta tungan löpa (Sved.). Genetic prototypes of the idioms, generating the image, differ in the non-somatic components and semantic transference of the action character comes from different initial verbal denotation. The idioms may originate from the identical image: lift one's hand against smb, die Hand gegen jemanden erheben, lyfta sin hand mot någon, etc.

2. Transference of meaning of the initial word combination which is based on the likeness of the sensation caused by the impact on the first signal system and of the reaction of the second signal system to its adequate irritants which are expressed, in the case under study, by word combinations denoting reproach, censure, praise, flattery, servility, fawning, etc. Associations between concrete sensations and abstract notions cause the birth of the idioms which may be called syncretic: a) have a biting tongue, eine beißende Zunge haben, ha elak tunga, b) burn one's fingers, sich die Finger verbrennen, bränna sig på fingrarna, etc.

3. Transference of meaning of the initial word combination which is based on the likeness of the intensiveness of the action: live from hand to mouth, von der Hand in der Mund leben, leva ur hand i mun, etc.

4. Transference of meaning of the initial word combination which is based on the likeness of the limit of reach of the concrete and the abstract: get smb in the palm of one's hand, klar auf der Hand liegen, ha någon pä sina fem fingrar, etc.

5. Transference of meaning of the initial word combination which is based on the likeness of the physical awkwardness and mental inflexibility: wipe smb's nose, jemanden an der Nase herumführen, dra vid näsan, etc.

6. Transference of meaning of the initial word combination which is based on the likeness of the real and unreal action: tie smb's tongue, jemandem die Zunge binden, binda någons tunga, etc.

In most cases metaphorical transformation of the global meaning in the idioms is connected with actualization of the somatic component's seme part of the body - Körperteil des Menschen - kroppsdel av mannen.

The expressive power of such metaphorical idioms is created by means of bumping lexically incompatible components together and depends upon the degree of unexpectedness of such incompatibility: bite off one's nose, auf den Ohren sitzen (to sit on one's ears), ha en räv bakom örat (to have a fox behind one's ear), etc.

Allomorphism is inferior to isomorphism and shows itself on the level of the inner form of the idiom.

Zyngier, Sonia

Phonetic Iconicity is not a recent concern. Since the time of Plato a strong intuition suggesting that there is a relationship between sound and meaning has motivated discussions on the topic. This paper aims at contributing to this debate outlining a different method for empirical examination of phonetic phenomena. The objective of this experiment is to verify whether there is a difference between and within groups as regards attribution of sounds to certain meanings. This paper discusses Wiseman & van Peer's (2000) findings that grief is associated with the sounds of the vowels "a", "o" and "u" and the sounds of the nasals "m" and "n", whereas the sounds of the vowels "i" and "e" and the plosives "b", "p" and "d" are better suited to express joy. Instead of pre-given sounds, here, vowel and consonants are produced by the participants themselves. To this purpose, 100 participants were divided into three different groups. Group 1 was constituted by 20 children aged 3 to 5, from two different kindergarten schools. The second group was composed of 40 teenagers aged from 11 to 12, attending the 5^th grade of two different public schools. Group 3 comprised 40 undergraduates of Science aged from 18 to 31 from a private University. Data collection was obtained by means of interviews for the first group and questionnaires for the other two. The data were submitted to statistical treatment. The results indicate a significant difference, especially with the vowel /i/ for the expression of positive feelings, overcoming differences in age and culture. The hypotheses that the sound of the vowels "a", "o" and "u" and the consonants "p", "b" and "d" may be better suited to express negative feelings, however, were rejected.

In a world where sequels are disfavored, Terry Pratchett's "Discworld" novels are an unparalleled phenomenon, still generating rave reviews with well over two dozen published titles. However, Pratchett is typically ignored by serious scholars, since he is linked with what one critical trio calls the "triple damnation" of humor, fantasy and accessibility. Fan websites enthusiastically catalog the series' plot details, strange names, allusions, and satirical points. But only one collection, Terry Pratchett: Guilty of Literature, touches on literary theory; and no work to date deals with the topic of the present paper: the language of Discworld narration.

Not surprisingly, Pratchett's humor draws on a perennially resilient set of linguistic features: exaggeration, word play, inventive names, and trademark dialog elements. Having briefly summarized these, this paper will focus on the tension between two clusters of features not typically on such lists. The first cluster involves vagueness and indirectness, which would seem to leach meaning out of text. Pratchett's noun phrases tend to be headed by indeterminate words like 'some,' and his predicates often feature semantically tepid verbs like 'appear' and 'seem.' To compound this deliberate meaning drain, repetitions and circular definitions abound. On a single page of Pyramids, we are told that the character Ptraci is as empty as 'an empty thing,' after which the same young woman mumbles 'something like "Wstflgl",' and the protagonist Teppic touches her on 'what looked like the least embarrassing part of her skin.' Later, the Great Pyramid swishes 'as unstoppably as something completely unstoppable,' and does 'something perverted to the fabric of time and space.' In Hogfather, Death confronts 'creatures that looked as though they had been put together from the bits left over from everything else.' In Thief of Time, one description enigmatically claims that '[g]lass and crystal glittered, and in some cases glittered very strangely.' In Lords and Ladies, the witch Nanny Ogg's behavior is attributed to her 'general Oggishness.'

Indirect phrasing or wordy paraphrase occurs everywhere, particularly when some character faces dire consequences. In Hogfather, a potentially fatal risk is termed '… not … an exemplary career move.' In Night Watch, a lethal sword becomes 'several feet of edged weapon.' Body parts are particularly susceptible to this paraphrase effect, which makes them seem like random possessions rather than intimate parts of the characters. In Night Watch, Vimes addresses his indignant demands to 'the nose and one eye that was the visible totality of the occupant' of what he believes to be his own house.

Having drained lexical meaning in some places, Pratchett proceeds to insert it back with a vengeance elsewhere, using striking metaphors (e.g. clouds moving 'like snakes in a sack,' in a 'bruised' sky, Night Watch) and semantically anomalous combinations (eyes meeting 'more or less with a clang,' Pyramids).

The underlying assumption in the paper, and its concluding claim, is that the traditional mechanisms of linguistic stylistics can uniquely identify Pratchett's beguiling contemporary style, which may constitute the strongest evidence that he is indeed 'guilty of literature.'

Mourtos, Eleni

The reading environment has a key influence upon how effectively we read. We propose that it also omit the readers' objectivity. We assume that readers who read a text about a quarrel in the phyical environment of a library read less biased than those who read the same text at home. Dixon & Bertolussi state that "readers' mental processes will vary with the characteristics of the individual reader, the nature of the text, and the context in which the reading takes place." In our work we used two texts, both about quarrels. In both texts it is impossible to say that one of the characters is in the right or wrong position. The two texts were read by two groups of volunteers, one group reading the two texts in the library, while the other group read the texts at home. The results will cast light on the question whether and to what extent the reading environment has an influence on the readers' partisanship.

Readers of poetry make aesthetic judgements about verse. It is quite common to hear intuitive statements about poets' rhythms, such as 'this poet sounds complex'. Yet, it is far from clear what these statements really mean. Does 'complex' mean 'non-monotonous', 'hard to produce' or, maybe, something else? Are our aesthetic intuitions supported by any concrete facts? How exactly, if at all, should complexity be measured?

The question of what it means for the rhythm to be complex was raised by the Russian symbolist poet Andrei Bely as early as in1910: 'But is [aesthetics] possible as a science? In fact, it is [Bely's italics] entirely possible. For only in such a case can aesthetics do away with all universally binding value judgements' (Bely 1985). Bely, himself a mathematician, applied statistical methods to the study of Russian iambic verse, and attempted to account for his own aesthetic judgements by means of concrete numbers and graphs. Bely defined complexity in terms of the deviations from the monotonous iambic template. Poets who deviate from the template often, and in a variety of different ways, have complex rhythm. Poets who deviate from the template infrequently have simple rhythm.

Sixty years later, the theory of Generative Metrics (Halle and Keyser 1971, Kiparsky 1975, 1977, Hayes 1989) adopted a very similar approach to complexity. The theories of Halle and Keyser (1971), Kiparsky (1975), and Hayes (1989) differ with respect to whether word, foot, or phrasal boundaries are relevant for measuring complexity. Yet complexity is still understood as a deviation from the metrical template.

This paper proposes a new way of measuring complexity, and argues that there is more to complexity than deviation from the metrical template. If complexity is understood as an aesthetic principle, many alternative formal definitions of this concept emerge. How hard is it to construct a certain line, or to invent a certain metrical rule? On the most intuitive level, it is clear that a poet who 'keeps track' of fewer things (e.g. merely arranges syllables into meters) is far less complex than a poet who keeps track of many things at once (e.g. meter, sound patterns, interaction of form and meaning, etc.).

Thus, the proposal of the paper is that complexity is the ability of a poet to control a number of independent linguistic and non-linguistic domains at once. The paper includes two case studies based on Joseph Brodsky's Russian verse. First, I show that certain deviating patterns in Brodsky's iambic verse written in Russian consistently correlate with the theme of exile. Thus, Brodsky simultaneously controls rhythm, semantics and the general statistical distribution pattern of stressed syllables. Second, I show that Brodsky creates a metrical elision rule, which involves a simultaneous manipulation of metrics, phonetics, and phonology. This paper contributes to the linguistic study of poetic meter by proposing a unified cognitive explanation of various aesthetic judgements about verse.

John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester (1647-80) left as controversial (and uncertain) a canon as any poet of Restoration England. Famous for his explicit treatment of sexuality and poetic use of obscene language, Rochester also wrote lyrics of exquisite feeling, subtly dramatic verse epistles and the complexly ironic, philosophically ambitious "A Satyr against Mankind." Beginning with the pseudo-Rochesterian "I rise at eleven," a lyric strongly focused on physical action, this paper will present the results of stylistic study of some of Rochester's short lyrics on sexual themes. It will emphasize the diversity of actions performed by Rochester's poetic personae, not just their physical actions, but also their acts of evaluation, their offers, proposals and curses. The goal of the discussion will be to suggest the characteristic actions and desires of Rochester's libertine personae and in doing so to say something about the notion of pleasure in Rochester's lyrics. Pleasure is given an aesthetic, even an ethical value in Rochester's poems, but how his speakers relate themselves to pleasure eludes simple description or easy paraphrase. We know a great deal about the social, philosophical and political contexts of Rochester's poetry. Through stylistic analysis, this paper will suggest how Rochester's personae activate and reconfigure the meaning potential available to them in those contexts.

At the time of poetic generation displacement, one of the main criticisms political or Social Poetry suffered was based on its supposed lack of 'poeticity;' this criticism was favored through the recovery of the old literaturnost concept by late Structuralisms and Stylistics of the 70's; literariness was based on the allotted purpose direction of the text: what it is said (non-literary) vs. how it is said (literary); for a text to be literary it had to be self conscious or directed to itself; and a way to measure this was the number of 'poetic means' (i.e. 'figures') it contained. By contrast, Social Poetry had a 'communicative' goal, a 'message' to spread; thus, it needed to follow a (Sartrian) political agenda, and this was identified by the new generations as propaganda of pamphlet literature. The supposed referentiality was achieved by social poetry through demonstratio ad oculos but, we argue, for the most part, not in a naïve propagandistic way, as stated a posteriori by literary critics, especially in the case study at hand: Gabriel Aresti, poetry prize in 1968. Despite the quick erase of the social poets from the poetic scene by belletristic critics, there is no substantial work analyzing one of the most evident linguistic and cognitive strategies social poets used, namely the deixis. We may define literary critics' work as a contextualizing must; the text has to be set in its appropriate background to account for the most probable meaning building process. Contextualizing can also be defined as trying to state the relationship between background ideologies (in its broader Bakhtinian sense), against which the text might be read, and the textual ergonomic directing saliency prompts. The complexity of the deictic elements is a clear path to solve this problem, as explained by Grundy and Yiang (2001). To elucidate the text in this way (Gabriel Aresti's poetic work), we will use Fauconnier (1997) powerful machinery, in trying to describe the Viewpoint space, that is, the perspective from which meaning is being built at the focus space. We argue that deictic elements act not only as sentential anaphoric or discursive cataphoric elements, but, most importantly, specially in an environment of tied Francoist Spanish censorship, as scene callers and backward projectors (Turner 2000) of the relevant pragmatic contexts.

The present paper reports the results of a corpus-based pilot study on speech and thought presentation on Italian texts, using the model proposed by Leech and Short (1981) and later revised by Short and his team at Lancaster University (especially Short and Semino - in press). The categories of speech and thought presentation proposed in the model have been used to tag a corpus of Italian texts consisting of twentieth century prose fiction and contemporary press articles. The aim of the project was to pilot test the model on another language to determine its applicability to a language other than English, and to establish what similarities and differences can be found in its application to that language. The quantitative results are quite similar to those found for the English corpus, as are the use and effects of the different categories. Thus, I will present how the model can be successfully applied to Italian texts discussing its use in the different text-types as well as examples of ambiguity. I will also discuss a number of "special" cases where the 'free' structure of Italian syntax (constituent order) produces different cases from those obtained in English texts. This pilot phase has satisfactorily tested the model used for English texts on Italian ones. This leads therefore to the possibility of future research with greater number of texts and with the introduction of new text-types.

I propose a presentation and analysis of the hands in one hundred classic/noted novels (in English) from Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe of 1721 to Arundhati Roy's The God of Small Things of 1997. The hand documentation comes from a database of all mentions of all (human) body parts-there are about one hundred and twenty--in one hundred novels. I will show how the hands can be seen in these novels by way of quantitative and qualitative graphics (one type is attached); each kind of graphic is accompanied by an analysis:

Chart 1: a chronological line up of how much the hands shows up in one hundred novels from 1721-1997. Although there is fluctuation, there is no statistically significant variation over time.

Chart 2: one hundred novels lined up incrementally, allowing one to locate groups with the largest and smallest ratio of mentions so as to investigate the context and use of the hands.

Map 1: the general set of qualities the hands show among these texts.

Map 2: the set of qualities of the hands in several particular novels hands (e.g., The Sound and the Fury, Emma, The Sun Also Rises, Robinson Crusoe)

These are quantitative charts and qualitative/analytic maps that will indicate interrelated ranges of hands. With the exception of a half dozen novels, the hands of most the works fall in the span between 10% to 15%. The stability of the proportional presence of the hand suggests an implicit, internal map of the cultural rules of the body. The hand has a wide range of gestures, not only in the rhetorical sense but the semiotic one; almost everything the hand does is a communication. The hand makes contact with the self, with others and with the represented materiality in the novel; the hand is also an object that is regarded and described (e.g., relative to age, race, and class); the hand is used in expressions, it makes signs of a general sort (gestures) and of very fine sort (writing), the latter, a kind of altering with a tool. The character or idiom of the novel will show up in how it configures the hand-whom, what or how it touches, for example. The connectivity in Robinson Crusoe where virtually no one is touched (except with weapons or bindings), is quite different from that in Emma where the issue of giving one's hand is marriage is an explicit sub-narrative, and different again from the erotics in Sons and Lovers. The narrative of the hand is redundant with the main plot in each case.

The presentation will demonstrate the reading power that a database allows oneBit gives one a large picture of a hundred novels and a remarkable stability of the hand over two hundred and seventy years, and it allows us a way into the particulars of any given text so as to allow for a very rich set of comparative studies among texts. One the on hand we have us a kind of cultural brain scan and on the other a scan of particular novels, allowing us to offer a more psychological analysis of the qualities of the body.

During the heyday of literary-critical Structuralism, it was generally agreed that Russian Formalism was the point of departure for theoretically-informed study or discussion of literature. In recent years, however, the movement has fallen into virtual oblivion among literary theorists. Is there any point in revisiting and rethinking the work of the Russian Formalists now?

A renovation depends upon distinguishing three kinds of topics or concerns characteristic of Formalism: 1.) those which are indeed obsolete, 2.) those which remain valuable, and 3.) those which amount to open questions. In this presentation two examples of each will kind be outlined, in hope of provoking some new thought about some longstanding issues.

1A. The most obviously obsolete element of Formalism: scientism (and the "linguistic model" intended to guarantee the scientificity of literary study).

1B. A second dubious element: the assumption that there is such a thing as "literariness"--that literature has an essence.

2A. One of the two most valuable legacies of Formalism, however, remains its antireductionism: its objection to treating compositions as manifestations of (e.g.) personalities, historical trends, or philosophical ideas. (Is criticism currently dominated by reductionist tendencies reminiscent of the context against which the Formalists rebelled?).

2B. The second great Formalist achievement: renewing and renovating the idea of a poetics. Renewed: the idea that, complementary to the study of individual works, a study can be pursued of their shared features (as a system of forms). Renovated: a program that is purely descriptive, without the mix of prescriptivist elements present in Aristotle and Neoclassical poetics.

3A. An issue for rethinking in the work of the Formalists: how to establish an open poetics, recognizing not only the features that past works in fact share, but features they might potentially share. Unless it can incorporate a recognition of literature as an art of potentials, poetics is doomed to create systems that must be reconstructed after every new work.

3B. A second issue: functionalism. A basic Formalist assumption--widely shared by modern critics--is that every feature and element described must have some function in the system to which it belongs. The limits of this outlook remain to be explored.

I understand FID (free indirect discourse- fid) as the impossible co-presence of absent (represented) conflicting or incompatible voices and the consequent evocation of a further possible (impossible) voice, which coincides with neither (none) of the other voices. From Bally to Banfield via Voloshinov, from Fludernik to Haiman, the problematic, finally unfinalizable spell of free indirect style/ discourse has allured and evaded style-workers from the founding of the discipline to the founderings of the present. Fid is a shifting centre which can confound but cannot be found.

Style and interpretation are inescapable in the study of language in use. This is why stylistics must be central to any responsible linguistics. In the same way I propose the inevitability of recurrence of fid studies because of the centrality of the phenomena to a linguistics of style and interpretation and so to literary stylistics. Whether we think we study language production and processing or issues in advanced literacy and social theory, performance data appear in ironic, parodic or otherwise stylized forms and we need to develop adequate models and methodologies for these data, even though we must always inevitably, by (in)definition, be finally evaded by these phenomena which morph under interrogation. For the reasons suggested, this foggy revenant fid which seems to retreat even as we approach it, will nevertheless not go away or dissolve in some positivist dream of enlightenment. It is behind us and before us, but never where we are. It will continue to beguile the unwary and test and try the savants among us in Short.

Metaphors are everywhere, the literal difficult to locate. The margins are at the centre, and all's well with the world. Perhaps Derrida had it right after all! At any rate, his celebration of the infinite play of text is stylistically rite, as centrally enacted in the unbearable lightness of stylistics' central activity of the study of fid. I trust.

Ever since Wayne C. Booth coined the term 'unreliable narrator' in his Rhetoric of Fiction, the concept has had a solid and valuable position in the narratological vocabulary. But during the last years the term has been taken up to reconsideration. From primarily being a moral and text internal matter (for Booth the unreliable narrator was defined by its deviating moral standard compared to the implied author's), contemporary narratology tends to define it as a reader-dependent issue: A narrator's (un)reliability is not a matter of inconsistencies or deviations internal in the narrational structure, but depends on the readers preferences. If reader and narrator share a worldview, a moral standard, values or beliefs, the narrator will be reliable to the reader. If not, he/she will be unreliable. As the German Professor Ansgar Nünning, one of the radical re-thinkers of the concept, puts it in a provocative statement: "To put it quite bluntly: A pederast would not find anything wrong with Nabokov's Lolita; a male chauvinist fetishist who gets the kicks out of making love to dummies is unlikely to detect any distance between his norms and those of the mad monologuist in Ian McEwan's "Dead as They Come"." (Nünning 1999, p.61).

On the one hand, the attention Professor Nünning and others (see ref. below) have directed towards the reader's role in the determination of narrational unreliability is of great importance and have opened for essential narrational complexities that needs to be followed in the future with further distinctions and conceptualizations. On the other hand, the rather exclusive orientation towards the readers responsibility does seem to overlook that the phenomena of unreliable narration is much more diverse than the clear-cut concept allows us to see.

In this paper I will suggest a distinction between no less than four different basic forms of narrational unreliability, namely--

· Intranarrational unreliability: marked discursively in the narration.

· Internarrational unreliability: established through comparison with other narrators' versions of the incidents.

· Intertextual unreliability: established through conventions of genres and character types.

· Extratextual unreliability: established by appeal to the reader's expectations and knowledge.

Everything will be illustrated with examples from literature and film - e.g. Nabokov: Lolita (1955) Bret Easton Ellis: American Psycho (1991), Ron Howard: A Beautiful Mind (2001) and Cameron Crowes: Vanilla Sky (2001).

In this paper I would like to examine temporality in fiction. I will use theorists like Hans Reichenbach, Gerard Genette, Paul Ricour and Richard Cureton in order to approach temporality in fiction.

The language philosopher Hans Reichenbach's model of a temporal reference system is still hugely influential, 57 years after his first published book on this topic. His main contribution to temporality research is, at least in my view, his tripartite model: event time, speech time and reference time. In my paper I will use Gerard Genette's taxonomy of time in narrative. He divides time into three elements, Order, Duration and Frequency, which all are defined as different correlates between story and discourse in relation to temporal elements. Paul Ricoeur states, in accordance with Heidegger, that time is an essential element of being a human. Furthermore, he claims that time and narrative has a symbiotic relationship, completely interwoven. In his Time and Narrative, he says "Time becomes human time to the extent that it is organized after the manner of a narrative; narrative, in turn, is meaningful to the extent that it portrays the features of temporal experience" (1984:3). Richard Cureton's research focuses the cognitive temporal function of rhythm. He states that there are three different rhythms: meter, grouping and prolongation. Meter is recurrent and cyclic. Grouping is centring around a nucleus and prolongation is linear, focussing on prospect and retrospect.

With these theories as a venture point I will present a tentative typology of temporalities in fiction, including the following categories:

(i) Linier time

(ii) Cyclic time

(iii) Dialectic time

(iv) Evoked time

(v) Experienced time

In my paper I will discuss the typology above using examples from film and literature.

Wynn, James

Rhetorical approaches to literature draw on the long tradition of rhetorical scholarship as a toolkit for the study of literary texts. Texts do not necessarily need to be "persuasive" to be considered rhetorical - David Richter has broadly described this approach as a focus on "the relationship between the work of art and its audience" (2). More recently, Mark Turner has illustrated the connection between the ancient study of rhetoric and recent cognitive theories of language. In our paper, we further demonstrate the compatibility of rhetorical and cognitive approaches by using Gilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner's theory of conceptual integration, or "blending model," to analyze an American short story. Cognitive modeling, such as the blending model, provides a more sophisticated mechanism for doing rhetorical analyses of literature.

Current rhetorical theories provide only imprecise means for identifying and modeling the effects of textual choices on audiences. The blending model provides a more exact method for organizing and describing the elements in a text that work together to create the effects desired by the author. By more clearly organizing and describing the process of conceptual integration, literary analysts can provide more fine-grained distinctions between intra-textual (fictional) audiences and extra-textual (actual reader) audiences as well as detailing the rhetorical role of textual features in addressing these audiences.

An analysis of Charles Chesnutt's "The Wife of His Youth" demonstrates the benefit of this conceptual model in literary analysis. The major culminating event of the story, a toast given at an honorary dinner, is a rhetorical performance for an intra-textual audience. As part of the toast, the speaker describes a situation which the intra-textual audience sees as hypothetical, but which the better-informed readers know to be actual. Using a traditional rhetorical approach, it is possible to analyze the tactics of the speaker, but extremely difficult to give an account of the audiences' conflicting understandings of his rhetorical performance. Instead, it is much more informative to view this verbal performance as a textual blend. The reader appreciates the intra-textual audience's view of the situation as hypothetical, and integrates that mental space with the extra-textual space in which the same events are actual. This reading describes the relationship between the text and its audiences by depicting mental spaces and the process of their integration.

Critical discourse analysis and critical linguistics have traditionally been used as methods of analysing whole or parts of texts in order to link the textual products of an institution with wider areas of social concern. This paper proposes a new mixed methodological approach to critical language study. By combining traditional qualitative approaches with methods of corpus linguistics, it is possible to highlight which recurrent textual features within a discourse type are worthy of further critical discourse analysis. This enables an analysis of a much larger sample of texts from within a discourse type, therefore allowing for any conclusions to be generalised with greater confidence. Reference will be made to a recently completed corpus of newspaper discourse, featuring sports reports and news editorials printed in two British newspapers, The Guardian and The Daily Mail, between 1953 and 2003. The paper will show how by building a corpus and using methods of corpus linguistics, such as producing word and cluster frequency lists, it is possible to conduct a more thorough critical linguistic analysis of the discourse type, revealing the extent to which the two newspapers exemplify social change. Particular emphasis is given to the way in which effective comparisons can be made between the language of different text types within the overall discourse type. This is achieved by discussing the differences between the editorials and the sports reports both within the same newspaper, between the two newspapers and over the period of time. Finally, it will be argued that by utilising the mixed methodology, some of the limitations of traditional critical discourse analysis can be removed.

The focus of this paper is the use of collocation analysis as a discovery procedure in stylistics. The target word for the collocation analysis is the word eyes in the fiction of the American author Flannery O'Connor. The paper also makes use of the Brown Corpus. Statistical tests covered are mutual-information scores and t-scores. The mutual information score for a two-word collocation is a base-2 logarithm of the ratio of the combined probabilities of the occurrence of the first word and the occurrence of the second word to the probability of the occurrence of the two-word collocation (Church and Hanks; Christopher D. Manning and Hinrich Schütze 179). For example, a collocation with words that individually occur with relatively low frequency but which almost always occur together in collocation will be assigned a mutual information score that is higher than a collocation with words that individually occur with relatively high frequency but which almost never occur together in collocation. The mutual information score measures the relative strength of the collocation; however, it doesn't in itself test the statistical probability of the occurrence of that relative strength. Furthermore, the test has the tendency to produce disproportionately high mutual information scores for low frequency collocations (Manning and Schütze 181-83). In order to correct for that tendency and to test the statistical significance of each collocation, t-scores are used here as well, as in Elisabeth Breidt (also Church and Hanks 24; Manning and Schütze 165). T-scores differ from mutual information scores, in part, in being scaled by an estimate of the variance. The analysis makes use of the author's internet-based text-analysis program TEXTANT to perform these calculations. The grammatical and semantic patterns investigated include voice and agentivity. Qualitative interpretive issues are illustrated by means of an examination of O'Connor's use of the word eyes in her exploration of sacramentalism. The word eyes is an interesting test case for computational stylistics, first because the eye has been treated extensively in the critical literature on O'Connor (Freeman, Gardiner, Gentry, Mellard, Oates, Orvell, Sloan) and second because although eyes, as tokens, are extraordinarily easy to search for with computer programs, the grammatical contexts in which they appear and find significance are much more resistant to computational discovery.

Metaphors do not just picture cultural influenced constructions of reality in lingual compression, they also show and influence collective perception and conceptions. Metaphors can't be understood without their historical and cultural context.

According to her own words the Austrian-Jewish author and psychoanalyst Anna Maria Jokl has lived six lives. Jokl compares these six lives to six glass plates, which she is looking through recalling her life. Saying this, Anna Maria Jokl is already an older lady, living and writing in Jerusalem, after a life strongly influenced by prosecution and exile. Born in 1911 in an assimilated Jewish family in Vienna, she again and again had to look for a new place to live, until in 1965 she settled down in Jerusalem. In her younger days - in her exile in Prague - she wrote children's-books. Then for almost 50 years Anna Maria Jokl did not publish any poetical text. This period of 'literary silence' which started during the Holocaust was only interrupted by the work Zwei Fälle zum Thema ‚Bewältigung der Vergangenheit', in which she describes the therapy of two young men - one the child of Jewish parents, the other the son of a Nazi. At the age of 82 Anna Maria Jokl had her literary comeback with autobiographical works. In these texts and also in different unpublished fragments Anna Maria Jokl regularly takes up the metaphor of the glass plates and the six lives, varies it and places it - expressing the central meaning of this picture - at the beginning of her Essenzen published in 1993:

"Chronologically registered these are essences from six focuses of our time: Vienna, Berlin, Prague, London, again Berlin, Jerusalem. If each phase would be a glass plate, all laid on top of each other, with their special indication etched in, and looked through from above with one glance - thus timing waived -, a hieroglyph of the epoch may become visible."

Although Jokl stresses new aspects in every different variant of the metaphor, the two main pictures nevertheless remain the same: the view through the glass plates as a metaphor for memory and the multiple lives as the picture of a time torn by pursuit and exile. Jokl's picture is not alone a memory metaphor; it explicitly refers to the 20th Century; the formulation 'etched' also points to a moment of force ? to the Holocaust. Therefore Jokl's metaphor can be seen as a 'metaphor transporting memory' and a 'metaphor of memory'.

I'd like to analyze Jokl's metaphor in the context of cognitive metaphor theory. I want to compare it with other memory metaphors, like those of Platon, De Quincey and Freud, as well as 'several-lives-metaphors', which are often used in the context of exile or being Jewish, to show the historical and cultural motivation of metaphoric mapping.

Net Art: "New Worlds" of Literature?

Discourse studies have recently turned their attention to changes in language use caused by changes in the media environment. They analyse, for instance, the impact of technical innovation on the resources of daily information, the new design of poly-coded texts and their functions in science and education, the development of traditional media such as press or television from the age of industry to that of digital information, the visualisation of linguistic content in other codes, the transfer of knowledge and production of meaning with modern machines of communication.

But among their manifold interests is also the aesthetic dimension of semiotic change influenced by the typological expansion and technological innovation of the media system as a whole. The role of the author is put into question, when looking at new forms of literary production on computer screens. The automat defines the textual structure of their works, which they create jointly in the net. Routines of perception will change audio-visual structures of literature competing with film, television, video, hypertext. The project of media aesthetics will be complemented by a yet to be drafted tele-semiotics of audio-visual media and digital art. The paper aims to take a closer look at new genres of aesthetics: net literature, hyperfiction, computer animation in film, interface design of video games, electronic novel, etc. They ask for new models of reading which are to be designed and investigated with new methods of textual analysis and comparative tools across all the media of aesthetic expression and across all the cultures of verbal art.

Semino, Elena

Short, Mick

McIntyre, Dan

Stylistics and narratology have a long tradition in the study of speech and thought presentation in narrative. Within this tradition, it is often recognised that there are differences between the presentation of thought and the presentation of (spoken) words, especially in terms of functions and effects. On the whole, however, the formal similarities between the categories of speech presentation and the categories of thought presentation have often been given more weight than any functional differences. Indeed, the term 'discourse presentation' is sometimes used to refer to both speech and thought presentation as an apparently unitary phenomenon.

In this paper we discuss some of the implications of two corpus-based studies that have been carried out at Lancaster University, respectively on a corpus of written narratives and a corpus of spoken English (partly consisting of oral narratives). In these studies, we have systematically distinguished between the presentation of speech, the presentation of writing and the presentation of thought. Our findings overwhelmingly suggest that, while speech and writing presentation are fairly similar (in terms of forms, functions and relative frequencies of categories), thought presentation contrasts significantly with both. We will show this in detail by taking into consideration some of the main categories of thought presentation, and we will reflect on the consequences of our findings for stylisticians and narratologists.

'Boyd single-handedly created and nurtured a unique style of writing about gay experience.' Hougen, publisher. 'I'm hooked on the style.' Anonymous STH writer. (McDonald ed., 1993, Scum, Fidelity Press, pp 5, 31.)

Straight to Hell Magazine (STH) emerged in New York in the wake of Gay Liberation sparked by the Stonewall Riots of 1969. Edited by Boyd McDonald from 1973-1993, STH originated the genre of gay men's true-life experience pornography. This paper presents a qualitative stylistic analysis informed by recent developments in the use of the concept of style in sociolinguistics (Eckert & Rickford 2001). Following Irvine's (2001) notion of style as distinctiveness, I outline how the styleless 'plain style' of STH was nurtured through contrasting it to idealizing and elaborate belletristic styles, such as romance and porn fiction. In this process, the contrast between non-fictional and fictional genres is understood in terms of the masculine/feminine binary. I argue that the 'plain style' McDonald encouraged has three related functions: 1) it contributes to its non-fictional status, 2) increases its pornographic efficacy, and 3) 'genders' the text. STH not only 'constructs' masculinity through representing stereotypical masculine objects of desire, but also 'performs' masculinity for its writers through its terse, factual style. In helping to resolve the dilemma intrinsic to any kind of homosexuality of where to locate the self in relation to the masculine/feminine binary, STH can be seen as contributing to the post-Stonewall masculinization of gay male culture. However, McDonald's use of high-toned literary critical terminology to pay 'attention to style' in this spectacularly low genre has a camp, ironizing effect. Supported by his use of ludic devices, this articulates a queer position with roots in the early 20^th century meaning of the term, as described by Chauncey in his history of Gay New York (1994).

Martínez-Cabeza, Miguel A.

On December 14, 2003 Saddam Hussein was captured by American troops near the village where he was born. Raw television images of this moment could be watched all over the globe. The following day, readers could see how the press treated this man, his seizure and the world's reactions, both pictorially and verbally. The various articles dealing with the same event offer a case in point of language use as social action, and critical discourse analysis (CDA) as proposed by Fairclough seems an apt instrument to disentangle the ideology responsible for the particular verbal representations. However, CDA itself can be called into question as a discourse practice prone to mixing up analysis and interpretation, argument and persuasion. This paper aims to assess the validity and explanatory power of CDA. For this purpose, an analysis will be offered of the textual representations of Saddam's capture made by four British newspapers (The Guardian, The Independent, the Daily Mirror and the Daily Mail) together with a discussion of the major tenets and applications of this approach to discourse.

From the mid-1970s onwards, the structuralist aim to produce a universal grammar of narratology, with language codes, subtexts and narrative functions has seemed to fail because of two recent tendencies: the poststructuralist argument that "there is nothing outside the text" ("Il n'ye a pas de horse-text", Derrida), and the statement of Cultural Studies that all human activities and communications can be viewed as narrative (Nash [ed]). Both theories imply that all accounts of the world are equally fictional because of their inescapable textual transmission, and both pose a challenge to the traditional narratology, which assumes an implied narrator as a verbally organising subject to the recounted world.

I would like to show by example of a Hungarian fiction from the 1920s, how the new theoretical approaches result in a new reading strategy. It is a novel about a young "innocent" girl who in the end commits a double murder.⁽¹⁾ The combination of sexual expression together with crime seems always to leak out of society's unconsciousness into its representation with a moral lesson. But in this case there is no moral lesson, nor a verbal explication or a reasonable motive. The action of the novel is nevertheless apprehensible - not by the instrument of the mind but by that of the body of the reader. The body of the protagonist being the holder, the store and the generator of meaning, inasmuch as its perilous pleasures and pains govern the narrative structure, the reader thus has also to use his/her body in its multifarious potentials to understand the occurrences. Only this shift in the reading process, indebted to the shift of the marginalised body to the centre within almost all academic disciplines since the late 1980s, opens the door for new interpretations of the text.

Earnest Fenollosa (1853-1908), states in The Chinese Written Characters as a Medium for Poetry (Pound 1936: 24) that:

… the Chinese written language has not only absorbed the poetic substance of nature and built with it a second work of metaphor, but has, through its very pictorial visibility, been able to retain its original creative poetry with far more vigor and vividness than any phonetic tongue.

He further claims that the essentially poetic nature of Chinese characters is that they combine what is seen in pictographic potentials with what is unseen in the metaphorical process of meaning production. According to him, metaphor is a process in which material images are used to suggest immaterial relations. He insists that Chinese characters visibly maintain the ancient roots of such metaphors in themselves.

This study tries to re-evaluate this sharp insight of Fenollosa into the nature of Chinese logographs as a medium for poetry and to place it in the new context of cognitive poetics. In contrast to the Chinese writing system in which only Chinese logographic characters are used, the Japanese writing system combines both logographic (kanji) and phonographic (hiragana and katakana) systems. Because of their iconic and metaphoric nature, an examination of kanji logographs in relation to their phonographic counterparts in Japanese provides a deeper understanding of the cognitive role of written language in general and in poetic texts in particular.

By using the model of blending, the study first argues that the meaning generation of kanji is manifested as a conceptual integration through creative blends of the constituents. The blending process is analysed in terms of iconicity, metaphor, and metonymy. The analysis uses both traditional texts such as haiku and modern texts of concrete poetry and design advertisements as examples to demonstrate that poetic texts utilize kanji representation as a kind of visual metaphor by which the complexity and multiplicity of meaning is enhanced.

The discussion clarifies that the interplay of metaphor and iconicity in kanji is a key factor for a full understanding of the Japanese writing systems, and that such interplay further provides profound insights into the mode of representation in a general theory of written language in addition to a theory of poetic creativity.

Pluciennik, Jaroslaw

In our paper, we present a possible application of the main tenets of Cognitive Semantics regarding rhetorical figures in the area of literary interpretation. First, we list main tenets of Cognitive Semantics. Second, we try to summarize the main analytical results of it in the reflection on rhetorical figures. Our main thesis is that the main advantages in the literary studies gained from Cognitive Semantics are not in the area of stylistics but in literary interpretation which, in recent years, has been in a state of a serious crisis coming from recent developments in deconstruction, which we treat as a kind of literary behaviorism. A cognitive and holistic view of the relationship between the mind and language, according to which the mind, cognition, and emotion act together in linguistic behaviors, can serve as a main theoretical advantage in the process of literary interpretation. Deconstruction blocks the process because it is based on the behaviorist theory of mind. We argue that especially a concept of empathy involved in language production and understanding, which we have recently associated with a theory of conceptual blending, is appropriate for the discussion with deconstruction, because it is grounded in neurobiological research. This naturalistic and general theoretical frame is also one of the main advantages gained from Cognitive Science in literary studies. It breaks with a one-hundred-year tradition of separating Science from the Humanities.

Despite evident advantages of telecommunications, many people resent their growing dominance over person to person communication. A survey showed that about half of male and most of female students would not like to telework, for they do not feel they can do without conventional interaction with people. We maintain that this resentment can be accounted for by the 'living in the past' state of mind, when people do not realize that there will be no stop for the change, and the only way to remain successful is to anticipate and adjust to it.

While working in an office people used to interweave job and interpersonal communication, in cyberworld they have to separate them, and this is psychologically hard. Since share of time spend with computers is going to grow, to preserve mental comfort people will have to learn (1) to focus on job and to plan mixing with people, (2) to balance real and virtual live, and (3) to communicate online effectively. This is going to become a social and demographic issue, because failure to do so will ultimately affect people's physical and mental health, community and family life.

The paper will consider the issue of gender communication online, which has already become one of the major thrills of the Internet. Some people are lured by the possibility 'to date' with someone from another part of the globe. Others are forced to do so by deficiency of person-to-person communication. Are they ready for this? Do they realize the challenges, the threats, and the responsibilities of such interaction?

Our answer to these questions is 'No'. Our analysis of dating forums has clearly demonstrated that in most cases gender communication online is ineffective, and sometimes even disastrous. The shortcoming of this are far from being innocent. People waste time and money, lose health, get addicted, develop or worsen inferiority complexes and misassumptions. On the other hand, there are other people, who are successful in using the benefits of telecommunications to find a match and to convert virtual romance into real-life families. This implies that online communication is just a powerful tool, and people need to lean how to use it. The paper will provide statistics and analysis of unsuccessful and successful communication acts and tentative solutions to the problem.

Thus, we assert that bridging digital divide requires not only instructing people how to use computers, but also helping them to remain human in the virtual world. The paper calls for further research into the conventions of online communication and development on specific training courses. Language and communication professionals, psychologists and sociologists have to say.

A novel typically has a narrator who is differentiated from the author. In different novels written by the same author, each novel will have a different narrator, and this is most obviously true in those novels told by first-person narrators. Therefore, we can say that the three prominent first-person narrators in Dickens (1812-70), that is, Esther in Bleak House (1852-3), David in David Copperfield (1849-50), and Pip in Great Expectations (1860-1), have different "mind styles". Mind style, a term coined by Roger Fowler (Linguistics and the Novels, 1977) stands for "any distinctive linguistic presentation of an individual mental self" (p. 103). He states that "cumulatively, consistent structural options, agreeing in cutting the presented world to one pattern or another, give rise to an impression of a world-view, what I shall call a 'mind style'" (p. 76). The aim of this article is to discuss the mind styles of these three first-person narrators in terms of vocabulary, collocations, and sentence structure, as well as other literary devices. The narratives presented by these different characters are divided into the dialogue and the non-dialogue, and the chief focus of this research is on the non-dialogues of the three narrators. First of all, the 100 highest-frequency content words in the non-dialogues of the three first-person narrators will be examined, considering the text size, word frequencies, and ratios of different words. The highest-frequency and lower-frequency content words will be discussed and compared with those of other contemporaneous English novelists. Secondly, collocations in the three different narratives will be analyzed as falling into two groups: usual or common collocations and unique or creative collocations. Lastly, it will be demonstrated that these differences in vocabulary and collocational patterns partly result in those of the sentence structures we find in the three narratives. This corpus-based analysis will reveal both quantitatively and qualitatively distinctive linguistic idiosyncrasies of three different narrators. In conclusion, a discussion emphasizing the necessity and importance of a corpus-based analysis of literary language is presented in order to clarify how the mind styles of Dickens's three first person narrators (Esther, David, and Pip) are significantly different in language and style, highlighting Dickens's creative powers.

This paper investigates the metrical structure of Taiwanese nursery rhymes. As an important heritage of Chinese culture, the nursery rhymes were handed down by children reciting in streets and alleys. However, due to the structural change of modern society, children are no longer allowed to freely play around, and the natural way of passing on the nursery rhymes has been interrupted.

This research establishes a large electronic corpus of Taiwanese nursery rhymes that is easily accessible to the general research community. The corpus includes traditional child's verse and creative child's verse, with a total of 3000 lines. Each line is coded for Chinese characters, word categories, syntactic structures, tones, and number of syllables. Previous works have argued for differences (Chen 1979) and similarities (Duanmu 2003) between Chinese and English metrical structure. In this paper, I further compare Taiwanese meter and English meter with thinker data, and explore a general theory of meter.

There has been a long tradition of research on Eastern and Western nursery rhymes and verse, but several basic questions remain unanswered. In particular, this paper pursues three problems. First, can Taiwanese nursery rhymes, like English verse, be characterized through fixed abstract template and rule mappings between the template and the metrical lines? Second, how do the metrical structures of Eastern and Western nursery rhymes contrast and contribute to universal metrics? Third, how do verse rhythm and speech rhythm compete with each other in Taiwanese nursery rhymes?

Li, Fu

What is going to be discussed in this paper is divided into two parts, a general introduction of the features of metaphor interpretation especially compared with that of metaphor production, and a cognitive pragmatic analysis of the process of metaphor interpretation.

Metaphor interpretation and generation

Compared with the process of metaphor production, the process of metaphor interpretation has got some distinguished features, which is going to be discussed in this part.

II. A new hypothesis of metaphor interpretation

After having done careful study on recent research in this field, I have found a new hypothesis of metaphor interpretation. In this hypothesis, the process of metaphor interpretation can be divided into three stages:

Recognizing implicature working under the direction of the Cooperative Principle, the hearer recognizes he has to seek implicature to the first place;

Computing after realizing that he has to seek implicature, the hearer must computing salient and non-salient properties of both the source and the target conceptual domains by way of Relevant Principle.

Mapping: then he comes to determine similarity or similarities, which may be some associating similarities that is to find the right mapping across different conceptual domains intended by the speaker, so as to interpret the speaker's metaphor successfully.

Conclusion:

The process of metaphor interpretation is not only simply and mechanically opposite to that of metaphor production. In the process of metaphor interpretation, what the hearer can do is to, based on the definite linguistic representation/form and with the help of context, infer what is intended by the speaker, compute salient and non-salient properties within definite conceptual domains so as to find the mapping intended by the speaker of the metaphor.

Free indirect discourse, especially free indirect thought (FIT), which Cohn (1978) calls 'narrated monologue' is one of the most interesting linguistic and stylistic phenomena in literary texts. It has been characterized in terms of mixture of a protagonist's and the narrator's voices, but formal parameters of FIT are not always applicable to actual cases. This is because whether a particular stretch of text can be regarded as FIT or not heavily depends on the textual context in which it occurs. The following sentence would not be regarded as FIT if considered in isolation.

(1) It was a lovely kitchen.

But if it appears in the middle of a text as a part of a character's memory, it can be interpreted as FIT;

(2) Her mother had once been photographed in the kitchen in a frilly apron, mixing a cake. The photographs were printed in a series of features about celebrities' wives and who they were and how they coped. It was a lovely kitchen. Their last meal in it should have been a kind of sacrament. (Angela Carter, The Magic Toyshop, 1967: 54)

This study approaches FIT by examining cases which are ambiguous between FIT and narration. By doing so, we can recognize why some cases are unambiguously FIT and others are ambiguous with narration. Ambiguous cases also suggest that FIT is a continuum, not a monolithic category.

The Lancaster Speech, Thought and Writing Presentation corpus, which consists of 260,000 words, tagged based on the speech and thought presentation model (Leech and Short 1981) provides not only FIT cases in 3^rd-person narration but also those in 1^st-person narration. The data shows that 1^st-person narration tends to generate ambiguity between a character's FIT and narration because it is often difficult to distinguish the 1^st-person character from the 1^st-person narrator. Another finding is that a stretch can be ambiguous between FIT and narration when it follows a protagonist's perception or reflection on the past. The narrator's mocking of a protagonist's voice also causes ambiguity between a protagonist's FIT and narration.

Hardy's earliest published and least familiar novel, Desperate Remedies (1871) anticipates much of his later fiction in its choice of topics and techniques. It is also one of the most thoroughly calibrated works ever, in terms of the precision of its temporal coverage of events, each chapter and constituent subsection being exactly dated and its duration marked. So radical a degree of overt notation and calendrical fidelity raises issues about the role and value of temporal transparency, in Desperate Remedies, in Hardy's other novels, and in fiction as a whole.

Within its historical context, Desperate Remedies dramatizes a tension between Gothic sensationalism and a detective-like Realism. As a rare example of a non-serialized Hardy novel, it contrasts suspense motifs drawn from Wilkie Collins, and its own supporting paratextual and sequential devices, with a hyperawareness of time, crystallized in the textual appearance of Bradshaw's Railway Guide. Aeneas Manston's microsecond error in consulting this timetable leads to major catastrophes in the novel, as well as underlining the function of the train itself, as a literally mechanical regulator and chronometric standard for the mid-Victorian era. The ambivalent relationship between a real-life reference work and fictional characters and events, moreover, is matched by a topography of Wessex which blurs the divisions between actual and invented locations, and an interplay of architectonic vision and fragmentary structure.

In his 'morphological poetics' of the 1940s and 1950s inspired by the organicist thinking of Goethe, the German critic Günther Müller (1890-1957) introduced into his studies of narrative the pairing of Erzählzeit/erzählte Zeit, setting discourse-time, measured in spatial units, against story-time, measured in temporal units. His interest in establishing a comparative morphology of novelistic types and 'time-shapes', and his attention to values of tempo, rhythm and proportion in narrative, would seem ideally suited to illuminate a text such as Desperate Remedies, with its ubiquitous and insistent time-indices. While later narratologists such as Gérard Genette and Paul Ricoeur have adopted Müller's temporal schemata in different ways, the present paper attempts to apply Müller's approach to Hardy's novel specifically, as a means to chart the alternation between flux and focus in its variouisly loose and dense handling of fictional time. The paper aims also to reassess both the continuing validity and the problematics of Müller's work, in the light of narratological developments half a century on.

The theme of this conference lends itself to work which tries to demonstrate that the tools of the past can be taught to do new tricks. This research continues an investigation reported at PALA 2001 in Budapest, into the relationship between text and readers' meaning(s), in that particular case the range of possible readings that in some sense fulfil the originally intended meaning of the authors.In my earlier research, the text was 'visual' (mostly photographic) and the informants were asked to produce a verbal commentary on aspects of the text. In the current case, the text is a poem, and the context in which informants commented on it was a first year undergraduate language examination in which students were asked to comment on the language of the poem and begin to apply their technical knowledge to stylistic analysis. In the event, the answers were pedagogically very disappointing; some of the students didn't answer this question at all and most of the others simply wrote down what they thought the poem meant with the occasional rather vague and impressionistic comment on the language used. In the spirit of 'waste not - want not', this nevertheless seemed ideal serendipitous data for my purposes.The resulting 64 responses to the poem form part of what I would call the 'shadow' of the base text (the poem). I will argue that the language of responses to (and interventions in) texts is at least as open to stylistic analysis as that of base texts. This leads to the possibility that one can map out aspects of a text's meaning, as it has been read by a particular group of readers, by investigating the stylistic features of their own responses. The advantage of this approach, particularly when using tools of analysis aimed at accessing 'hidden' aspects of meaning, such as presuppositions and implicatures, is that there is a direct (linguistic) parallel between what we would wish to do as stylisticians of base texts (such as poems) and as investigators of cognitive aspects of texts. No need, in this case, to become a psychologist! The other advantage of the current data was that it was collected for a completely different purpose, so the informants were aiming at impressing an examiner, not providing a researcher with the answers she needed.

The 64 responses to a single poem form a corpus investigated for its stylistic patterns as well as its content, using the more discourse-oriented tools of analysis such as modality, transitivity and nominalisation as well as aspects of more 'traditional' stylistic analysis, such as lexical semantic choice and local clause structure. The conclusions to be drawn directly from this analysis relate to the range of meanings this poem has for a particular group of readers. More general conclusions will be about the nature of textual and poetic meaning. With luck, by the conference itself, the poet herself will also have an opportunity to comment on the outcomes of this work.

"The Warrior Princess Ozimba," by Reynolds Price, illustrates many aspects of verbal and nonverbal communication. The verbal aspects can be viewed by content. There is a ritual greeting; there are narratives. There are requests or demands but no acknowledgment that requests or demands have been met. The interchange between the narrator and Aunt Zimby shows that she still has considerable language and social skills, even though her preoccupation with the past suggests decreased mental ability.

The rhythm of the conversation also shows a normal sequence of turn-taking, but one participant, "The Warrior Princess Ozimba," dominates the conversation and partially controls the responses of the conversation partner. She is the one who also decides what topic will be discussed.

There are also purely nonverbal aspects of the conversation that affect the participants. Aunt Zimby is using nonverbal communication when she stamps the floor three times (381). For her daughter, this is a signal that she wants something. The action of thumping on the floor might also show that she is a strong person who demands attention. The daughter responds with "What you call me for, Mama?" Mr. Ed, however, thinks of a bird which "beat the air with its wing and made it thunder." Aunt Zimby continues to thump the floor until she seems to fall asleep. "The little tune she had been thumping out slowed down and stopped," the narrator says (382).

Finally, there is the management of silence. When one participant in the conversation falls silent, the partner has the option of observing the silence or filling up the emptiness with talk that may itself be empty. After telling the story of young Mr. Phil and the mulberries, Aunt Zimby falls silent. She smiles and goes "back into her age like sleep so still and deep I couldn't have sworn she was breathing even. . . ." The narrator observes the silence, counting to a hundred with the intention of leaving if she doesn't speak. However, she does speak. As mentioned above, she asks "You don't know my Mr. Phil, does you?" and he responds with a "No" (380).

At the end of the story, there is silence again. Once more, Mr. Ed thinks about leaving, but Aunt Zimby rouses herself and gives the inspiring description of birds flying through the air, thus ending the story on a positive note. "You can see them little birds, can't you, Mr. Phil? I used to take a joy watching them little fellows playing before they went to sleep" (382). What is remarkable is that she knows that the birds really are there even though she has been blind for years and is now going deaf.

The communication is at times focused on the present and goes, at times, far into the past. Aunt Zimby's awareness of the weather, her interest in the mulberry tree, and her awareness of the need for new shoes are all connections to the present. In the episode in which she thumps on the floor, she has called her daughter to inquire about the annual event of Mr. Phil bringing her some new shoes. Most of her talk about the past concerns Mr. Phil. The description of flying birds at the end of the story is a reality in the present, a phenomenon that the heroine has observed in the past, and perhaps a foretelling of her freedom in the future. Mr. Phil, the birds, and Aunt Zimby herself are bridges from one era to another.

The present study, mainly based on M. A. K. Halliday's Systemic Functional Grammar, tries to make a linguistic analysis of American writer Truman Capote's nonfiction novel In Cold Blood.

Inspired by Hallidian SFG principles, our discussion will structure a tripartite network. The study has three, from top to bottom, realization levels: social context level, textual and clausal level. The first level, however, is absent in most, if not all, literary stylistic researches so far. As the Figure below shows, there exists a logically diachronical relation among the levels: the output obtained from each upper level becomes the input to each of the next lower levels, providing a basis for more detailed discussion for the following level. At Level 1 and Level 3, there are also tripartite organizations, the former covers metaplots (development of plots), metapersonality (progress of personality) and metastructure (general narrative structure); the latter concentrates on materiality (the extension of actions), mentality (conscious state) and relation (being). The major purpose-explaining linguistically why and how the novel means what it does-will be fulfilled at this level. At Level 2, a cohesion model is adopted. The focus of the discussion is on an interpretation of the hero's personality and the sense of horror of the novel from the Systemic Functional Grammar perspective.

Irregularity of components is a characteristic property of the language. In the process of speech various linguistic levels - phonological, morphonological, morphological, morphosyntactical and syntactical - show certain limitations associated to the combination of phonemes, morpheme sequence, compound nouns and structural organization of sentences. Psycholinguistic experiments reveal that in speech generation recoding of different levels of units is carried out in the so called immediate memory. Its volume is limited and equals 7±2 signs of a message that can be perceived and remembered by a human being. It is related both to syllabic composition, the number of morphemes in wordforms and that of the words in a sentence. The immediate memory volume is verified by the syllabic versification of line structure and strophe construction in various languages.

Strophic verse structures include distich, tercet, quatrain (the prevailing form), mukhamas, sextain, septima, triolet, nona, decima, rondel and sonet. It should be noted that sonet, the most significant strophic form, consists of two quatrains and two tercets.

It is proposed to take the number of syllables in a hemistich for the length of a verse line instead of the number of syllables in a strophe, which can be as large as twenty. One can argue about a twenty-syllable line, but no integral ten-syllable segment can be observed in this verse form. Words with the length approaching the maximal depth and length are quite rare in poetry.

In conclusion, it should be noted that a psychologically conditioned law of 7±2 informational units being remembered is universal for all linguistic levels and for a strophe in syllabic versification. Tono-syllabic and purely tonic verse based either on the appropriate distribution of stressed and unstressed units or on the identical number of syllables in each foot requires further investigation which should take into account the boundaries of the metre.

This paper tries to look at the notion of foregrounding in perception and interpretation of literature. Following the proposed topic, I have presumed socio-cultural background as a determining factor in finding foregrounded elements. That is, socio-cultural heritage play important role in detecting some elements as the foreground and others as habitual/background in literary language, which is close to real life interpretation. For this reason, this approach may be critical towards linguistic approaches in that they foster the notion of textual and stylistic strategies as a prime and sole way of detection and consequently "defamilairization". I have taken critical view about the notion of systematic and rule-governed nature of language and its referentiality, which is inherited from Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure. For better justification, I will appeal to Russian Formalist approach to language and literature as a straight-line with that of Systemic approach discussed by Halliday (1973) and Hasan (1979).

Influenced by structuralist approach to language and literature, Mukarovsky, the father of structurlist stylistics, speaks of difference between poetic language and standard language from vantage point of poetic language. Mukarovsky believes in existence of foregrounded elements both in literary cannon and standard language, but he says that the act of foregrounding in standard language is communication while in literature it de-automatizes our perception. He says that this violation is systematic, which makes possible the poetic utilization of language. In other words, it is the same argument made by Victor Shklovsky, who remarked that our daily life is "habitual/automatic" in that we do not tend to "see" the things but rather to "recognize" them. On the contrary, this is poetry which defamilairizes our perception so that we can see the world from a different angle. We may see, then, that Systemic approach is inherited the same principles hidden in Formalist approach to language and literature in that the same existed forgrounding elements discussed in Formalists approach are now called under different banner--'functional interpretation of meaning' (Halliday, 1973; cf. Guske, 1998).

The reason for undertaking this study is that even nowadays most of teachers and practitioners, in schools and universities, tend to cultivate the notion of hidden meaning in which she/he has to act like archaeologist in deriving a meaning in abstract sense, without considering the surrounding environment involved. This means that they consciously or unconsciously lead their participants in an unwanted way, which is far beyond real world necessities and understandings. That is, we align them form their everyday culture and invite to inexperienced phenomena.

The calculation of individual appreciation rather than culture-bound approach to reading literature in EFL situation may lead us to better understanding and appreciation of literature, for prompting reading and comprehension abilities in our students.

For it is quite obvious that Realism is necessarily dualist, and that an ontological dualism is always "realist." (Alexandre Kojäve, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel, 154)

In her influential study of perspective and realism in the novel, Elizabeth Ermarth claims that narrative perspective is premised on a "consensus," personified, in a sense, by the narrator: "the basic activity of the past-tense narrator is . . . a confirmation of collective experience, literally a recollection of all points of view and of all private times under the aegis of a single point of view and in a common time" (Realism and Consensus in the English Novel, 54). This "common time" grounds, in turn, the sense of "motion" (from past to present to future) she finds "confirm[ed]" in "realistic fiction," namely, an "ethic of mobility" (55) i.e., the ethos of modern Europe. As a corollary, she views realism and perspective as uniquely modern phenomena, denying the existence of ancient antecedents.

I would like to propose, however, that what underlies narrative perspective and realism is a dualism: the dualism of private, subjective points of view and public, objective reality. This dualism corresponds to Benveniste's celebrated distinction (based on the grammar of French) between narration/history (histoire) and discourse (discours) (Problems of General Linguistics). While the objectivity of narration superficially resembles Ermarth's consensus, it comprises not a "collective experience," but a set of external facts. It is the resultant interplay between (fictive) reality and belief, between the experienced present and the past of narration, that creates perspective. Ermarth's theory of consensus, in contrast, is a literary version of pragmatism reality is belief what Bertrand Russell identified (apropos of William James) as a "neutral monism." As a corollary, my abstract, formal definition of perspective allows us to recognize as did Erich Auerbach long ago in the opening chapter of Mimesis that antiquity achieved its own version of realism and perspective.

In support of my hypothesis, I, too, will turn to Hebrew biblical narrative and Homer. The former, like the novel, realizes a narrative dualism between narration and discourse, achieving thereby a sense of realistic perspective strikingly akin to that of the novel. Homeric epic, on the other hand, constitutes a narrative monism, deriving from the homogeneity of its underlying oral tradition. For this reason, Homer's narrative is, as Auerbach famously observed, "all surface," the Bible's, "fraught with background."

At the end of the 16^th - first half of the 18^th century a syllabo-tonic system of versification was being formed in the literary verse of different peoples of Europe. The basic principle of the system is the regular alternation of weak and strong positions in verse. The new system displaced previously existed syllabic and tonic verses. At the end of the 16^th, beginning of the 17^th centuries syllabo-tonics spreaded in the poetry of Netherlands. Later, at the second quarter of the 17^th century, this system was being developed in the German verse under the influence of the Netherlands experience and owing to the activity of Martin Opitz, a theorist of German versification. Then, due to the influence of German poetry, literary verse of Northern, Central and Eastern Europe was subjected to the influence of syllabo-tonics.⁽²⁾ The formation of iamb in Russian literature of the late 30s - early 40s of the 18^th century is also closely connected with German verse experience.

This paper reflects the results of the investigation being the part of the scientific work aimed at the study of typology in formation of syllabo-tonic versification in different languages. The data on the comparative study of genesis and early development of German and Russian syllabo-tonics are presented. The apparatus of the theory of reconstructive simulation of versification developed by Marina A. Krasnoperova⁽³⁾, is applied.

German iamb rhythmics is studied on the material of verses by Martin Opitz, Simon Dach, Andreas Gryphius und Johann-Christian Guenther. Russian verse is studied on the material of iambic tetrameter by Mikhail Lomonosov of his early period (1739-1743). While calculating the language models of meter vocabularies of Russian and German prose of different styles were used.

As a result of comparative analysis some typological correlations as well as some distinctions have been observed. For example, it appears that most of German poets have the same original source of language rhythmics.

In the late sixties, Painter Arakawa and Poet Madeline Gins decided to pool their resourcefulness and embarked on a collaborative transcdisciplinary practice, producing work across a range of sites. These include: books, painting-sized, body-wide puzzles, installations, built environments (bridges), earth works, buildings (houses and museums and working plans for housing communities and small cities.

Their procedural architecture is aimed at building surroundings that allow a person to observe, learn, and transform configurations across and between the organism-person-surround. There are two important aspects to their transdicsiplinary approach stated in the Architectural Body (2002):

Results from many research sources and approaches need to be pooled and compared -- "there needs to be a communal devising, selecting and combining of techniques that will strengthen organism-persons and help them to regenerate themselves."

Research should no longer be done off to one side, in a school, library or laboratory. Where one lives needs to be become a laboratory for researching, for mapping directly, the living body itself, oneself as world-forming inhabitant."

The focus of this paper addresses the shift that A/G work signals - from methodology to coordinology. This is consistent with the need to pool results and do research on the sites where thing happen by discussing the shift from discursive practice such as writing alone to the coordination and configuration of modes of sensing and codes of practice.

A/G supply excellent examples of this shift in the history of their own work. By reading through and across the various discursive sites the produce they continually articulate their body-wide research and find their bearings. I will discuss two books of discovery (Arakawa's interaction with Poe's Eureka and Gins speculative fiction called Helen Keller or Arakawa) along side two sets of work (the body-wide puzzles of The Mechanisms of Meaning and the immersive architectural environment of the Bridge of Reversible Destiny). In these sets of tandem works there is no outside to the experimental space and we are left to our own devices, in A/G terminology, the architectural body.

If concepts of measure are the system of making in poetics then landing sites (embodied attention) are the tactics of forming in coordinology. In the expanded and expanding field, we interact with "what is in operation as the world" and A/G recognise the need for a convergent but not reductive approach. This is precisely what they indicate by re-writing of stakes of literature that Blanchot solidified in "writing so as not to die" to become the transdicsiplinary declaration "we have decided not to die".

In the fifth century, a theologian known as the Pseudo-Dionysius urged readers to "plunge into that silent darkness beyond intellect where we find ourselves not simply running short of words but actually speechless." He then went on writing.

My paper will consider the stylistic features of this peculiar type of discourse. In seeking to speak the unspeakable, such texts represent and enact the very problem they describe. As Wolfgang Iser puts it in a more contemporary context, "Once we have encountered the limits of the sayable, we must acknowledge the existence of 'unsayable things' and, by means of a language somehow formed on being silent, articulate that which cannot be grasped." This language is often more performative than assertive. Its rhetoric may be broken, paradoxical or contradictory as it piques, then frustrates, our desire for a homological relation between Being and representation. Instead of allowing stable meanings to form, it may even turn back upon itself to unsay what has just been said.

We frequently associate the marking of linguistic and epistemological limits with present-day thinkers like Jacques Derrida. As we shall explore, though, tracing the gap between manifest signifier and latent signified is hardly unique to contemporary critical practice.

This presentation will look at several constructions of the rhetoric of silence, including the anonymous medieval Cloud of Unknowing, a seventeenth-century lyric by George Herbert, and a recent essay in which Derrida addresses his relationship to Dionysius. In the process, I will consider how differing conceptions of an absent, transcendental signifier can be felt on the level of style. Finally, I will speculate as to why contemporary critics have, in general, neglected these earlier texts. Might an understanding of the past impact our current practices? And how might a shift in perspective alter conventional distinctions between pre- and post-modern?

Enclitic position in Ancient Greek was regulated by Wackernagel's law (i. e. sentential enclitics were usually placed second within the sentence/clause). So it is in the Homeric poems with the sole "indulgence": in these texts second position may be counted both from the beginning of the sentence/clause and the beginning of the line. In the latter position the enclitic often loses its pragmatic sense. Wackernagel's law sometimes allows the enenclitic to be not the second, but the third or even the fourth word in the sentence/clause.

This usually happens when some initial complex of particles appears in front of it. Such examples are also met in the Iliad, and pretty often the enclitic is moved backward by the same initial complex of particles. Some of these initial complexes appear more than a hundred times in the both Homeric poems, but are hardly ever met in the later Greek texts. I suppose that most of these initial complexes should be regarded as Homeric poetic formulae.

I think that some of the longest clusters (up to four or five Enclitics) ought to be treated in the same way. Many clusters are met only in the Iliad and the Odyssey and some later poetic (and very seldom rhetoric) texts. It is interesting that enclitics within a cluster often have close or even the same meaning, so it is sometimes next to impossible to translate these clusters from Greek. It seems that it is no way caused by our week knowledge of Ancient Greek, but the components of most clusters simply lack lexical meaning, possessing just the metrical one, as allowed to fill in vacant positions in the line. When there was a sole vacant position, the sole enclitic was used. I believe brief analysis of enclitics in the Iliad vividly shows the primary of particles in a poetic text was to make up a line and only than to "deliver" syntactical or pragmatic meaning.

A poem is written by somebody in order to be read by somebody else. It could thus be said that the text is somebody's message addressed to someone and it's also addressed to your emotions. Usually each poem has a title. Also the poem normally requires the reader to construct a sense of the total text. So we expect a thematic title to relieve the reader of most of this task. Empirical research has shown that titles act as activator of the reader's background knowledge and that they play a crucial role in facilitating comprehension, interpretation and recall.

A reading experiment carried out investigated whether a thematic title induced appropriate emotions in the reader.

A sample of 130 people took part in an experiment, in which they listened to two sound poems by Ernst Jandl, the famous Austrian author of concrete poetry. The poems were the same for all listeners, but the titles were different, in some case the title corresponded to the thematic material of the poem, in other cases it did not. After listening participants evaluated the emotional quality of the sound poetry on a scale from one to seven. The paper will present the results of this experiment and discuss their implications for a general theory of poetic titles.

Recent research in student culture argues the emergence of a new mainstream student culture at Danish universities (e.g. Simonsen (2000), Illeris (2003)), and international research supports the existence of this trend in other Western universities (e.g. Danielsen et al. (2000)) Rather than directing their attention on subjects, disciplines or future career possibilities in their choice of study, these students are very preoccupied with who they want to be, and they use their studies at university primarily for exploring and constructing a personal identity. This self-orientation and need for personal meaningful studies contrasts traditional academic self-understanding in which the discipline or the disciplinary problem is at the core of academic activities. It would seem probable, then, that this change in student culture would have some effect on student writing and texts, but we still don't know much about the effects of this cultural change, if any. In this paper I want to discuss if and how self-orientation in students' learning processes affect their writing, based on a discourse analysis of introductions and conclusions in 32 collaboratively written problem-oriented student reports written at the Humanistic Basic Study Programme at Roskilde University in Denmark in 2000 and 2002. I want to discuss both the actual manifestation of self-orientation in academic student writings and whether such self-orientating features co-exist with or stand in the way of the discipline.

The fact that academic writing is never impersonal or purely objective has been discussed already (e.g. Ivanic (1998); Hyland (2000)). Self-orientation, however, involves more than expression of identity or writer persona such as explicit inclusion of a personal focus or motivation or of personal comments and opinions. There is no reason why these two concerns - that of the university and that of the student - should not be able to co-exist in student projects and writing. Self-orienting textual features might also be considered a healthy way of signalling ownership, of taking charge and responsibility of the written text. The point Illeris and others are making, is that if we want to be able to learn these students anything we need to provide them with the opportunity to combine personal and disciplinary dimensions in writing, and they suggest problem-based learning as the answer. However, if self-orienting features such as subjective or personal opinions and motivation overrule or replace for instance disciplinary argumentation with personal or disciplinary relevance with personal motivation, we do have a problem.

The theory of reconstructive simulation of versification developed by the author, is focused on the study of internal processes and mechanisms working while generation and perception of verse rhythmic structure. This is a system of semiotic and probability-statistical models. The theory is centered upon a semiotic model of perception and generation of verse rhythm. The paper aims to provide to short description of this model in the aspect of cognitive poetics..The model was constructed by comparing texts of the Russian poetry written in the syllabic-tonic meters. However its principal features may be applied to the similar versification systems of other languages. Besides, the model may be expanded to explain also other types of verse rhythmic organization The basis of this model is the hypothesis that during the generation and perception of a text its rhythmical structure becomes detached from the sound component and comes under the authority of the brain special mechanism.The model is a simplified hypothetical description of some form of this mechanism and its functions.

The model consists of the mechanism of reception and the mechanism of generation. The mechanism of reception is a device for receiving rhythmical structures of verse lines (rhythmical lines) during the generation and perception of a text. Its functions have an inductive character and are limited by synchrony. The mechanism of reception consists of the operative memory and mechanism of realization of rhythmical lines..The processes of accumulation and interaction of rhythmic lines, taking place within this mechanism, are described in the paper. As a result of accumulation, rhythmic text. unfolded in time becomes transformed by the operative memory into a spatial pattern, called the internal meter of this text As a result of interaction, different rhythmic effects and the rhythm of the text. arise. The conditions of appearance of all these phenomena are analysed. The notion of rhythm semantics is defined.

The mechanism of generation is a device which reflects, remembers and controls processes taking place within the mechanism of reception and it also carries out the generative functions. The transmission of signs from one text to another is made possible by this mechanism so its role is both synchronic and diachronic. An idea is given about the structure of this mechanism, about the forms of reflecting in it of the rhythmic experience accumulated during the perception of texts, its transference into new verses being created, about the formation in it of the external meter, being the reflection of the internal one. The main functions of the generation mechanism while generating and percepting of verse are described. The notion of preliminary rhythm is introduced.

On the base of the model the fundamental problems of Russian verse rhythmics have been explained hypothetically. Cognitive aspects of the model deal with such phenomena as preverbal forms embracing language and thought, internal speech, communicative mechanisms of culture, selforganising unconsious mental mechanisms, psychology of creation work.

Kuhn, Elizabeth

There's Nothing Lightweight about Translating Light Verse: A Linguistic Explanation of Some of the Reasons behind the Challenge

Translators of poetry have always had to juggle commitments: What's more important to preserve in the translated version: Meaning? Tone? Form? Sequence? Rhyme? Meter? Other Music? Humor? When any or all of them collide, who wins? Every literary translator must wrestle those conflicting loyalties into some kind of alignment. Most are familiar with Benjamin's three basic approaches and settle on some version of his compromise solution. Some scholars, including Schleiermacher, have declared the task of translating poetry virtually impossible. Nabokov warns that preserving formal characteristics can sometimes result in unexpected trouble, such as the kind that springs from feminine rhymes in Russian poetry that are transferred into English, where they are considered light verse and thus lose their original emotional impact. This paper will provide a linguistic explanation for some of the challenges I have encountered in translating the light verse of the contemporary German poet Robert Gernhardt. Gernhardt's tight use of rhyme and meter, typical and in fact required for light verse, poses the first challenge since easing up on its demands would result in a poem that no longer qualifies as light verse. Word play and punning pose additional challenges. However, those are just the beginning. Subtle play with gendered articles and indefinites are either lost or not at all subtle once translated into English. And the irreverent and informal tone in many of his poems also does not easily move from one speech community to another. Moreover, the resulting poem must be funny, and funny for the same reason(s) the original version is funny. Achieving that goal can sometimes be the biggest challenge of all.

poetic translation, meaning, tone, meter, humor

The telling of personal experiences, most notably through narrative storytelling, is generally accepted as a universal activity and integral to a person's socialisation. Narrative storytelling, however, is only one of several modes of storytelling, having been formalised in the work of Labov and Waletzky (1967), and Labov (1972). While narratives are presented as encapsulating the commonest storytelling form, Plum (1988) offers alternative storytelling categories or generic structures to account for other modes of storytelling: through anecdotes, exemplums and recounts. Most significantly, these alternative sub-genres of storytelling lack the necessary high point or crisis that forms the complicating action in narratives. In the telling of recounts, states and not events are elicited. If recounts lack a complicating action, as described by Labov and Waletzky, why is this the case? Is form and function linked? What of their 'entertainment values'? This paper explores further, recounts as a sub-genre of storytelling, and presents data from my study on personal narratives to show that there appears to be a significant correlation between recounts and story topic that has not yet been commented on by other works, including Plum's. By correlating successfully formed narratives, that is, those that contain schemas associated with a fully-formed narrative, according to Labov and Waletzky, with particular story topics, the same can be achieved by analysing recounts, beyond their internal structure. In other words, storytelling genre or generic structure may well be determined by story topic so that narratives and recounts are as distinct in their conventionalised structure as they are in the experiences that they describe and the rhetorical function of their telling in the first place.

With the rise of the new medium of communication-electronic mail, in which there is no interferences in the form of interruptions, oral/aural markers, restrictions of topics or any sort of physical contact (Rossetti, 1998), people might expect new language behaviors in this new dimension of communication. Therefore, this study examined whether EFL learners would exhibit the same gender features displayed in native English speakers in their e-mail communication with their teacher. The participants in this study involved 70 "Fresh people" taking the course, College English. The data were collected from the e-mail correspondence during a four-month period. Discourse analysis was used to analyze the data. The analysis of the data was based on the assumption of an aggressive/male, supportive/female dichotomy expressed by Herring (1994).

Several conclusions were reached: (1) gender differences exist in the new medium of communication--electronic mail, (2) females are more supportive than males in e-mail correspondence, and (3) females are more polite, even in the non-facial communication via e-mail. Such findings suggest that L2 learners demonstrate the same gender differences as native English speakers. Such findings are also congruent with Gurak's (1995) argument that communication on the Internet, like any other technology, "has components of gender, class, and racial biases and is not . . . a completely egalitarian space. It is reflective of our social values as a whole, and since gender bias exists in the broader culture, it surely exists in cyberspace."

This paper highlights the necessity of teaching literature by considering it from an anthropological point of view, either ex parte obiecti or ex parte subiecti. As a matter of fact, anthropology can help interpret the text and choose the best way to favour the students' learning activities. Every culture has to be studied in a comparative way, in order to emphasize similarities, differencies, interactions. Is it possible to apply this anthropological method to literature teaching? What factors involving this perspective can improve the hermeneutic activity of the reader, that is of the student who collaborates with the teacher to interpret the text? Every group of human beings has a particular identity based on habits, cognitions, beliefs, which affect the behaviour even by an unconscious schematism. This symbolic system is used by groups to attach meaning to the social and individual experiences. Literature is an imaginary world whose fictional reality makes use of traditions and memories. What method of literary analysis can take into consideration the usefulness of an anthropological insight, aiming at finding out the connections between the text and the symbolic and cultural context of the author? On the other hand, what is the effect of the juxtaposition and comparison between the writer's cultural background and the student's anthropological categories? Is there any relevant psychological repercussion on his/her motivation and competencies related to literature comprehension and interpretation? Are there positive results on the improvement of learning abilities, not only with regard to the meaningfulness of knowledge, but even to its permanence? Literature studies based on the recognition of the anthropological differencies between the author and the reader make the student's point of view more objective. Besides he/she can get over prejudices and a stereotyped outlook on life, as she/he is able to recognize the plurality of the ways human beings follow when establishing relationships between their self and the natural and social environment.

The detractors of Robert Frost's poetic legacy have often referred to his use of aphorism, lengthy tautology or to his 'thinking aloud' , in order to belittle his status and reputation as a poet. A great deal of such material in the English Language is inaccessible to human intuition, because its use involves a combination of delexicalisation and phraseology (see Louw,2000). In addition to providing a general reading of Frost's _Weltanschauung_ and preferred devices, a huge corpus of natural language such as the Bank of English or Birmingham Corpus (+-500 million words of running text) is capable, for the first time, forensically, of revealing the true status of this insufficiently researched colloquial backdrop to Frost's creative work.

Linguistic features are primary in the examination of the two basic narratological distinctions introduced by Gerald Genette (1972), namely `who speaks´ and `who sees´. The awareness of the fact that the distinction between these two participants, i.e. the narrator and the focalizor, is based on linguistic observations has become a door-opener for linguistic theory in literary analysis.

Despite the incorporation of linguistic and literary approaches to narration and point of view, there is still much disagreement concerning the role or function of the narrator. In traditional theory the narrator is considered an anthropomorphic speaker and organizer of the textual universe who is held responsible for selections of narrative devices and depictions of actions. Only few narratologists have rejected these - in my view - outdated anthropomorphic and communicative approaches.

It is my argument that the narrator only exists when an external consciousness other than that of the character is audible. This voice mainly becomes audible through evaluations which cannot be traced to a character on story level, or in the presentation of superior knowledge. Dorrit Cohn refers to this narrative style as 'dissonance' which stands in opposition to 'consonance' - a narrative situation where the narrator's voice is said to fuse with the characters' voices (Cohn 1983 (1978)). Free indirect discourse is a major factor in this discussion. It is my claim that rather than being a fusion of two voices, there is only one voice present in this narrative situation and that is the character's voice. No other voices are audible. This point will be illustrated by an analysis of Donald Barthelme's Bishop (1982) where both evaluative lexis and syntactic structures will be considered.

A Psychoanalytic Approach to the Narration in To the Lighthouse Jian Luo University of Birmingham UK To the Lighthouse depicts the sensations and sensibility of some holiday-makers staying at the Ramsays's guest-house. Narratorially, the novel is very innovative in form as it abandons plot. Furthermore, it focuses on conveyance of the characters' unarticulated feelings-the processing of human mind-and may, therefore, be classified as a psychological novel. In a sense the narration in the novel progresses in a recurrent structural model shown below:

Diagram 1 represents an Oedipal triangle while diagram 2 schematizes the ambiguous relationship between the characters. From this perspective this paper performs psychoanalysis into the narratorial mode in which the narrator traces the characters' changes in consciousness perceptible in their efforts to fulfil their respective desires. Also, this paper explores how Woolf's representation of stream of consciousness contributes to the formation of the novel's impressionistic and elusive style. After all, it is proposed that a psychoanalytic reading of the novel attains a 'new' interpretation of the 'old' text: the alternation of repression and fulfilment of human desires facilitates our civilizational development.

In recent years, many of the theories advanced by scientists and philosophers of cognition have tended to fall into two seemingly incompatible categories. Some theories concern the radical split between perception and the object of perception. Other theories deal with the embodiedness of thought and thus the common material ground of human cognition and physical nature. The first category, based on a constructivist position, assumes a division between the representations formed in perceptual experience and the objects of that experience. Scientists and philosophers of cognition often emphasize that our experience of reality (including the reality of our own bodies) is profoundly constructed and inherently fictional. They also point out the extent to which we habitually project our categories onto the world. The second category, based on the idea of embodiedness, assumes that our fundamentally mediated experience of the world is at the same time not alienated from it because it is also of the world. The neural structures and functions in which our representations of experience take shape are not divorced from physical world but embedded in it. These two tendencies, which might be called splitting and integrative principles, are fundamental to ways that we conceptualize human cognition and experience. They are also at the heart of many conceptual, linguistic, and literary conundrums and debates.

Each of the two seemingly incompatible principles, considered alone, forms the basis for a dualistic and essentialist approach to human cognition. I propose to investigate a relationship of interdependence and mutual interrogation between the splitting and integrative principles. I will demonstrate the relevance of some Eastern philosophy and in particular the thought of the ancient Indian Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna to such an approach, which I call "radical dialectics." The approach that I propose involves recognizing and maintaining a dialectical motion between terms considered to be opposed. Such a dialectics radically questions the essentializing of human categorization, in which the intrinsic existence and nature of our cognitive and perceptual categories are taken for granted. Yet a radical dialectics does not denigrate the mediation of human experience by our cognitive and perceptual functions. Instead, such a dialectics places this mediation in a dynamic and interdependent dialogue with the emptiness-to use a term important to Buddhist thought-of its functions. This dialectics does not create a hierarchy of concepts or a deconstruction of one realm in order to elevate the other, but instead a nonresolving, interdependent, and mutually interrogating dialogue or drama among terms.

In the second part of my presentation, I will briefly suggest ways in which twentieth-century poets explore concepts that are vitally important to cognitive scientists. I will highlight one poet, Leslie Scalapino, whose work critiques essentialist and dualistic constructions through a blurring of boundaries between terms. In particular, Scalapino's work shows the dialectical relationship between private and public realms of experience. By complicating traditional divisions between private and public experience, she seeks to demonstrate-but not necessarily to denigrate-human categories of intersubjective experience and the illusory nature of their conceptualization and hierarchicalization. She questions the rigidity of categorizations of intersubjective experience in order to reveal the tendency to reify boundaries that impoverish experience. She attempts to recover the richness of experience by revealing the relationship of interdependence between private and public realms, and to demonstrate the illusory nature of the discrete separation of these arenas. Her work is consonant with statements by such cognitive thinkers as Antonio Damasio, George Lakoff, and Mark Johnson on the fallacy of separating the biological and the social and on the interdependent relationship between the neural and the intersubjective.

This paper addresses the ways of understanding textualities in terms of their tropological displays, which shows the underlying ideological contents. This task comprises a double level: on the one hand we must define, explain, and apply a comprehensive view of rhetoric; and on the other, ideology has to be defined as well as identified. Rhetoric has for ages been a discipline related to human communication and understanding, mainly associated with writing. Textualities are ambivalent places of concrete signs and immaterial concepts based upon solid authority and social trasmissions of varied negotiation and reception (Greetham 1999), and texts make up a complex field of discourse discussion both in terms of communication and cognition (Sperber and Wilson 1986, 1995); all this leads to the recognition of a rhetorical framework producing the development of a rhetorical function, comprising several rhetorical elements that articulate this textual component (Martínez-Dueñas 2002).

My aim is to show the development of traditional methods of rhetorical analysis and the integration of current ideas, related to pragmatic linguistics, that are updated rhetorical applications. As a consequence, the ideological level has to be analysed in terms of the rhetorical principles and rhetorical components deployed in the text; in order to carry out this analysis ideology must be recognised as an opaque process taking place within culture semiotics and legitimizing authority in terms of order and power (Ricoeur 2000). In this particular approach, I address the topic by means of analysing these processes as appearing in autobiographical discourse acting as a type of narration which may create a manipulation of history and may also impose a particular type of interpretation; textual samples act as referential elements used to understand the discourse. The achievement of this type of discourse and its social transmission and reception is enhanced by a rhetorical action creating an identity framework. It is our task to identify, classify, and explain the set of tropes and the rhetorical argumentation that gives out an ideological process in the form of a textuality which becomes part of a cultural capital and a process that contributes to the spread of the discourse of power (Bourdieu 1991). By considering rhetoric and ideology, the study of textuality reveals a deeper and intricate sense that stresses its complex semantic reach.

This consideration entails the analysis of argumentation, comprising its components in terms of opposition and these of similes and metaphors, as well as the recognition of explicit and implicit structures. All told, this study may reveal the manners of presenting an argumentation and the ideological processes involved.

This paper examines several news broadcasts from different countries for the purpose of comparing their use of "visual language". This is based on the premise that the use of visual items in texts communicates and is meaningful in a way that is comparable to written language, and that such texts are multimodal in combining the use of different resources to produce an overall "message". The paper considers a number of these resources or modes that are used in the production of news on television such as the colour of backgrounds and graphical inserts, the use of the camera and the layout of elements on the screen. For the purpose of analysis a semiotic approach is used to connect the deployment of specific signifiers (such as colour) as the practice of design to the wider social context. That is it examines how the choice of signifiers represents particular constructions or views of the social world. The approach therefore recognises the context of production in the conventionalised forms that have become familiar to viewers as television genres. In the analysis of the data, the paper posits questions such as "What does the choice of a particular colour for the studio background say about the text's producer's view of the role of the news and who they think will be watching it?" Such choices indicate relations of authority between texts and viewer/readers, as to how constructions of authority in the represented world of the text compares to the social world of the audience.

The sample texts have been drawn from a "World News" sequence on the Japanese NHK cable channel BS1. They include brief clips from news programmes from a number of different countries: China, USA, UK, Japan, Spain, Germany, Russia and Korea.

This paper explores the potential of the cognitive poetic framework of parabolic projection to inform readers' construction of meaning of a dystopian narrative on three inter-related levels. Dystopian fictions typically extrapolate and exaggerate perceived tendencies in contemporary society, and are thus often interpreted by literary critics as didactic 'warnings' of dreadful things to come, should present trends continue unchecked. Firstly this paper considers the linguistic manipulation that often plays an important role in the dystopian vision - for example, 'newspeak' in Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), and 'nadsat' in Burgess's A Clockwork Orange (1962). Neologism is a feature of both the above-mentioned texts, and appears to some extent in many dystopian narratives which play on contemporary anxieties about the nature of communication and the role of language in public life. The text analysed here - Margaret Atwood's 2003 dystopia Oryx and Crake - similarly presents unfamiliar terms for objects and processes, which the reader must decode. This act of decoding can be seen to utilise input and generic spaces that equate semantic fields with cognitive triggers to enable parabolic projection. Secondly, this paper explores how far there is a correlation, or mapping, between the generic, and subsequently blended, spaces created by the process of decoding neologism and the reader's perception of character, events, objects, and processes in the narrative. Significant correspondences between these two levels of understanding are noted. The third level considered here - the whole-text level - explores ways in which the didactic potential of dystopian writing can be explained in terms of how readers use their day-to-day life experiences to reach a relevant interpretation of the text that may subsequently be projected back into their own lives. Finally, brief suggestions are made as to how the mechanism of parabolic projection might be tested empirically with readers.

Whilst most critics and scholars are interested in the Victorian city life presented in Dickens's works, very seldom do they look into the ways Dickens uses language to portray the city. It is interesting to note that there exists a dichotomy between ideal and non-ideal living preferences for Dickens. Through linguistic means, especially phonetics and syntax, Dickens presents the non-ideal physical or psychological environment with skill. This paper first explores how Dickens associates certain phonemes and features of sound (that is, the phonetic texture of sentences) to negative imagery, unpleasant feelings and ear-hurting noise. For example, from a number of his novels, it is evident that Dickens is fond of the repeated use of the temporal progressive suffix -ing to indicate a massive amount of disturbing sounds. Sounds or words ending with the phoneme // or the suffix -ing are linked with noise in Dickens's works. The frequent use of initial consonant /b/ and also the final consonant /k/ are strongly related to hardness and harshness of an object or a situation. This paper then reveals how syntactic repetition is significant in Dickens's descriptions of streets, houses and cities. Very often syntactic repetition is a linguistic trait Dickens employs to symbolize the dull, monotonous and homogeneous nature of the physical appearance of a place which Dickens strongly detests. For example, in Hard Times, the perception that large streets and small streets in Coketown are no different is reflected in the recurring use of the same syntactic structure. In this paper the two phenomena are named phonetic iconicity and syntactic iconicity respectively. Using Dickens as an example, this paper also draws our attention to the need to adopt new spectacles and attitudes to read canonic texts. Though written ages ago, the classics keep bringing new elements into the linguistic field, which are useful in our analysis and writing of contemporary texts.

This paper approaches various stylistic issues in Carol Shields's fiction via the theoretical framework provided by a Text World Theory analysis. Such theoretical model can throw light on as well as question the widely spread critical claim that Shields's novels stand firmly on the boundary between modernist and post-modernist categories. The main feature traditionally used by Shields's researchers to justify the above classification is the metafictional nature of some of her novels, mainly Small Ceremonies (1976), Mary Swann (1990) and The Stone Diaries (1993). The metafictional slant is achieved by presenting these three novels either as complete (auto-?)biographies, as is the case with The Stone Diaries, or with a strong presence of biographical elements, in Mary Swann and Small Ceremonies. As Shields herself acknowledged, 'biography is my consuming passion'.

The use of biography in novels is, however, a well-established technique. I am interested in applying a relatively new approach to the study of biographical fiction in which both text and readers are considered integral elements for the construction of discoursal meaning, namely Text World Theory. I will be using Gavins's reworking (2001) of the model originally proposed by Werth (1999). Gavins's adaptation puts forward the concepts of world-switches and modal worlds to account for Werth's notion of sub-worlds. The three tiers of discourse comprehension in the original framework are not altered, though. Furthermore both models maintain a discoursal approach to the analysis of entire texts trying to cater for the ways in which readers cognitively cope with the complex mental representations of narratives. I will be suggesting further alterations to both models in order to investigate whether the inclusion of biographical elements affect the way readers process such mental representations.

Precedents to the literary movement known as "Romanticism" appear very early in literature, especially in the stories known as "fairy tales." Aspects of characterization, plot, suspense, globalism, and especially the device of the happy ending, are both precursors to and underpinnings of both Romanticism and of fairy tales from all over the word.

This presentation will show that similar dynamics to these drive the teaching of English as a Second Languaage (or Foreign Languagge). Actual teaching experiences and possible ecducational scenarios will be used to demonstrate this idea.

When discussing Hemingway's understated, compressed and economical style, critics often quote the by now famous statement of the author himself about the dignity of the movement of an iceberg being due to only one-eighth of it being above water. More than his other writings, the short stories have this iceberg-like quality. It seems that Hemingway solved his stylistic dilemma of wanting to convey deep emotion without communicating it explicitly by relying heavily on the power of things left unsaid but implied. To make sense of the world projected by the text, the reader, as a participant in the process of constructing the textual world, needs to fill in the gaps and thus set up his own participant world.

In order to shed light on this complex process of tackling the textual iceberg, this paper approaches Hemingway's "A Very Short Story" from various theoretical perspectives: Gricean theory and schema theory inform the analysis of the textual mechanisms that, by generating complex implicatures, require the reader to embark on an inference-making tour de force; possible worlds theory in relation to plot; narratology and stylistics in relation to point of view.

The paper argues that, although deceptively uncomplicated at first reading, the text involves subtle variations in viewpoint and that the understanding and interpretation of the text relates largely to the construction of viewpoint. Therefore, in the second part, the paper focuses on the analysis of viewpoint at the global macro-discoursal and the local micro-linguistic level.

The possible worlds framework is adopted in order to explore the internal structure of the fictional world projected by the text. From this theoretical perspective, the modal structure of the fictional universe is a product of various acts of focalization, and, consequently, the analysis of the plot as a constellation of the possible worlds is employed as an in-depth application of viewpoint analysis.

The Senegalese poet Senghor has said that his poetry is best when accompanied by a drum. Senghor tied his poetry to African musical instruments and in an essay titled "Ce que l'homme noir apporte"(1939), he explains the central role of rhythm in the African's life in general, and in his poetry in particular:

Music is not a self-sufficient art in African society...originally it accompanied ritual songs and dances. In the profane sphere, it does not become independent; it takes its natural place in the collective activities of the theatre, agricultural work and athletic competitions. Even in the daily evening drumming, it is not a purely aesthetic manifestation, for it brings its followers into a more intimate communion with the rhythm of the dancing world. A great deal of this has remained with the Westernized and Americanized Negroes. Instinctively they dance their music and their life...African music, like sculpture, is rooted in the nourishing earth, it is laden with rhythm, sounds and noises of the earth.

Naturally, this is not always done and at most times, the reader is alone with the poetry, reading to himself/herself. aloud or in one's inner voice. Nevertheless, there are a number of linguistic devices that are reminiscent of a drum in Senghor's poetry:

1. Phonological devices such as the voiceless stops/p/ and /t/, arranged in such a way that the beating of a drum is evoked.

2. The use of specific patterns of rhythm where a number of beats occur between specific points in regular patterns.

3. The employment of heavy, beating lexical items that resound heavily and juxtaposing those lexical items immediately with lighter, more mellifluous wording , thus creating moments of intense, dramatic "drumbeats" that give way to joyous instants.

In this paper, I offer a typology of such devices and ultimately argue that these drum- strategies were intentional devices employed by Senghor to "build-in" drum accompaniment so that drums could be "heard" whenever his poetry was read.

The proposed lecture will discuss The Tunnel, the first book written by Ernesto Sábato, one of the great Argentinean writers. The novel was published in 1948 and first translated into Hebrew in 1976 by Dvora Eliaz and Eliezer Carmi. A new translation by Tal Nitzan-Keren was published in 2003. Both translations show a higher level of explicitation than the original. In the earlier translation explicitation takes the form of additions to the text, while in the new translation, the translator opted to limit the meaning of the original text.

The most obvious method of increasing the level of explicitness in the first translation is the addition of lexical items nonexistent in the original. In this Hebrew translation we find many repetitions, instead of references or anaphoric pronouns. Furthermore, many of the additions are pragmatic assumptions made by the translators. For example, ha'anašim holxim le Café Marzotto 'al menat leha'azin lela anei tango, aval lo be'ora stami; hakahal makšiv šam lamanginot halalu beir'at keduša ke'otam sogdim-adukim haba'im lišmoa' et himnonei-hatefila lezexer Mateo-hakadoš <people go to Café Marzotto to listen to tango melodies, but not in a simple way; the audience listens to these melodies with fear of God like the fanatic adorers coming to hear the hymns of prayer in memory of Saint Matthew>. The bolded segment does not exist in the original. The study also found numerous binomials that were introduced into the text by the translators. These include yadua' umukar <known and familiar>, hap adim veha ašašot <fears and worries>, pšuta uregila <simple and ordinary>. Binomials are typical of Hebrew literature and literary translation during the thirties and forties (Toury, 1980).

In some places, the meaning of the translation was limited so that it lost an important distinction made in the original, such as the distinction made through use of the intimate "you" form as opposed to use of the formal reference. Though this distinction is changing nowadays, it is very important in the work under discussion, as it focuses on the development of the relationship between a man and a woman. Only when the author notes the use of a formal reference or shift to informal reference in the original is this translated into Hebrew. However, when this distinction is only expressed grammatically, no parallel distinction is made in the Hebrew translation. For instance, when the woman tries to hide her intimate relationship with one man from another man who is in the same place, she suddenly addresses the first man using the formal reference. Spanish readers immediately understand the significance of this shift, while readers of the translation get no such hint in the text.

My paper investigates the prominent role of translation and imitation in eighteenth-century poetics through an examination of the later poetry of Thomas Gray, one of the period's most significant authors. Like many of his contemporaries, in his later career Gray shows an avid interest in seeking out, translating, and publishing older forms of primarily foreign oral poetry. This avidity for oral poetry has come to be seen recently as an expression of his aversion to the commercialization of literature and the corresponding professionalization of authorship that it entails. By translating and imitating ancient and medieval oral poetry, the story goes, he attempts to revive a time when bards were imagined to be the moral and intellectual legislators of culture.

My argument modifies this critical tradition by arguing that in his translations Gray experiments with new ways to reproduce bardic voice in print and, in the process, re-imagines the modern English poet as an intermediary between the lost world of medieval bards and the emergent world of modern print capitalism. Thus, what is seen most often as Gray's and, by extension, eighteenth-century poetry's nostalgia for the past and rejection of the present should be seen instead as his attempt to conform modern printed techniques to the requirements of oral voices.

Gray's interest in traditional poetry begins with his poem "The Bard" (1757), which narrates the English invasion of Wales by Edward I in the twelfth century, and whose central speaker is the last living Welsh bard. This poem uses internal rhyme, slant rhyme, and alliteration to approximate the sonic features of Welsh poetry; Gray uses certain prosodic techniques and invents specific poetic forms to allude to Wales's historical past and mimic the sound of its verse.

His experimentation with traditional poetry continued throughout the 1760s, sparked by his extensive research into Norse and Celtic poetry at the newly opened British Museum. From this research, Gray composed a series of loose translations--which he called "imitations"--of Welsh and Scandinavian folk songs. The process of creating these imitations is linguistically complex; he worked almost entirely from Latin translations produced during the seventeenth century, though in some instances it seems that he referred to the original language, whether Old Norse or Old Welsh, to decipher their metrical and aural qualities and reproduce them in his verse, much as he did in "The Bard." As the term "imitation" implies, the fidelity of his translations varies widely: at times he follows the Latin text closely, while at others he departs entirely or adds elements that do not appear in the originals.

This study shows the possibility of detecting the criminal by analyzing the effect of noun variation upon the crime novel, The Mystery of the Blue Train (1928), written by Agatha Christie. Her style is well known as simple and easy to understand with plain words, moreover there is no special pattern of hint for detecting the criminal among her works. I describe how Christie gives us the hidden messages in her work by framing the variation of the characters. As many characters exist in her work, it is hard for readers to detect the criminal by the end of the story as well as M. Poirot or Miss Maple do. But it is possible to guess the criminal by analyzing the description of each character, although readers do not normally pay any attention to this at all.

This study concentrates on how Christie describes each person by using proper noun, noun, and pronoun. Although not obvious to a casual reader, her lexical choices in this area serve to remind readers of the relationships between her characters and provide a subtle hint as to the identity of the criminal. Among other characters, Christy uses unnatural variation for two men; the murderer Knighton, the secretary of the American millionaire, and a mysterious agent Ivanovitch.

Whereas Christie describes most characters in this novel with typical grammatical variation, the grammatical patterns used with these two men are quite distinct. This is especially the case with Knighton, she intentionally does not use the noun "the secretary" in chapter 34 at all. This irregularity shows the hounded mind of Knighton and this is the hidden message from Christy.

To consider whether this feature is typical of Christie or unique to this particular novel I will make mention of another of her crime novels, 4:50 from Paddington (1957), to see if her hidden message can be seen as in The Mystery of the Blue Train.

In recent years a vast amount of research has appeared on the subject of conceptual metonymies and metaphors in political discourse. However, little research has been undertaken so far which examines the use of conceptual metaphors in political poetry. Moreover, there is a lack of research on conceptual metonymies in poetry in general. This paper analyses German protest songs that adopt a critical attitude towards the US or, more specifically, to the American government and its officials in order to consider the role of conceptual metonymies in political poetry.

This study has two aims. Firstly, it will provide a general overview of the specific use of metonymies in songs which seek to fulfil both a political and a poetic function. In doing so it will consider metonymies from a corpus of political protest songs from German speaking countries over the last 30 years, and show how metonymies are used in these songs to refer in indirect and figurative ways to political targets. Secondly, it will provide a general account of the way in which this type of figurative language constitutes a form of 'poetic aggression'. A consideration of the choice of metonymy will play a key role: it is possible to identify a tendency to avoid directly naming the intended target and a preference for referring to it obliquely in terms of metonymic relations. However, many of these metonymies are difficult to understand, a fact which - at first sight - would seem to contradict and undermine the political function of protest songs. My hypothesis is, however, that these difficulties raise form the fact that even political protest songs rarely consider salient parts of their targets. My study will argue that the reason for this is that the basis for the selection of most metonymies in political protest songs is governed by a principle of both foregrounding and of degradation. Towards the end of my paper I will discuss why, despite their attempts to achieve rhetorical effects, it is important for political protest songs to be a challenge to the reader/hearer. In addition, it will provide a brief comparison of metaphors and metonymies in German protest songs.

The instantial stylistic use of phraseological units has a long history, stretching from the earliest writings to Modern English. A diachronic approach and evidence afford a better insight into the development of phraseology, it also upsets some of the existing misconceptions and assumptions, which have no regard for creative instantiations in discourse.

A cognitive perspective helps to establish the immediate link between the instantial use of phraseological units and figurative thinking. This view changes perception and encourages to see the continuum of instantial use both diachronically and in the texts today, aiding comprehension and interpretation.

The paper gives an overview of three types of developments: 1) instantial use across centuries in the OE, MiE, ENE and MoE periods, 2) its reflection in lexicographical sources and 3) its research and the scholars' attitudes to it.

The trends of the modern stage testify to a further development of the patterns of instantial use, resulting in effective concurrent use, saturated contexts and sustained use across sentence boundaries. The multimodal use is on the increase, creating complicated textual and visual representations. I believe that the corpus-based dictionaries will eventually find a way to reflect the instantial use of phraseological units fully and treat it as a natural phenomenon, not as a stray exception. As to research, its development will definitely benefit by drawing upon the explorations of cognitive science and using the findings for the research of phraseological units and applied stylistic purposes (teaching, learning, translation, advertising).

The purpose of this presentation is the analysis of the verbal expression realized in Katherine Mansfield's "The Fly." As a model of analysis I used Style in Fiction by Leech and Short.

In the first part of the paper, I will investigate the linguistic details of the verbal network, especially the interrelation among words and phrases: how they are interwoven into an artistic whole, and in what stratificational relation they are retained. The network is checked from the following four angles: 1) words and phrases relating to kernel notions 'old' and 'new' and those derived from each of them; 2) reported verbs such as unmarked 'say' and marked 'pipe,' 'quaver,' etc.; 3) external appearance of the characters in the story and their belongings; 4) setting, surrounding and background of the work. The static result of this approach, however, cannot be prevented.

In the second part, therefore, in accordance with the development of the plot, the dynamic yet subtle psychological process of an egoistic boss is observed with special reference to the stream of images. Of all the images depicted in "The Fly," the 'boxed up' image is the most important and helps develop the conclusion of my argument.

I draw the conclusion that in "The Fly" the idea that 'life is not always what one likes' is expressed. The grounds of the argument are as follows: first, all the characters, including the fly, are placed under constraint, which is relevant to the 'boxed up' image. Second, though he doesn't seem so at first sight, the boss too is in a state of constraint, so that there are things that he cannot do of his own free will.

I believe I can strengthen my conclusion by taking notice of the verb structures expressing <desire>. 'Want to do' structures are used twice for the description of both the boss and old Woodified. It is interesting to know whether their desires are realized or not in terms of <±fulfillment>. The intention of the boss is not fulfilled, while that of Woodifield is. It is also interesting to investigate the oddity of the expression, 'intend to feel.' There seems to be a discrepancy in the meaning of these joined verbs in that 'intend,' which in nature takes a 'controllable' verb, takes an 'uncontrollable' verb.

To summarize, the various unconquerable desires and drives originated from the bottom of human existence are, in the long run, obstructed by things which are above our human understanding. It is seldom indeed that the consequences of human action work out as planned.

The software and programming based transformation of poetics has been most pronounced in the relatively new genres of Hypertext, New Media and Electronic Literature. And while most of the programs utilized rely on incorporating images/sounds/video, interactivity and hyper-linking into the literature, advances in speech recognition software has inadvertently established a new method for poetics recreation. Software such as Dragon Natural Speaking translates the spoken word into text, however the translation is inexact and often more reliant on vocal tones or ambient noises, than the actual words spoken. In addition the biases contained within such programs to modern business and technical terminologies, continue this literature reformation process. What is being proposed is a new form of technology assisted poetic creation. By utilizing these s! peech recognition programs, and understanding the nuances and maladies they contain, as well retraining the programs for specific poetic aesthetics, a poem can be written and then translated and retranslated through the program. Additionally a writer could record environments such as bus stops or beaches to harvest the poetics circulating around us. Interestingly it is the program's faults, the shortcomings which create such a powerful linguistic tool for a new technology assisted poetic.

Hardie, Michelle

Zinken, Joerg

Both South Africa and Zimbabwe attracted white only migrants form Europe during the post war years. Both countries have seen political changes that led to many of the children of first generation European migrants to re-emigrate to Europe. These new migrants have both a narrative of immigration that they share with all migrants and a unique narrative as 'returners'. Five white SA and four white Zimbabwean (3 women and 5 men) were each interviewed extensively on two different occasions about the experience of immigration, the taped interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyses to seek and understand the discourses and metaphors of this new type of immigrant to Britain. The following three discourses were identified, along side others, as illuminating of the situations of these people. These are: 1. A Career as Strangers. 2. Derogation of British Natives. 3. Sorrow for a Lost Life Style. These are discussed in the context of the white person in Africa where he/she was a stranger in his/her homeland because he/she lived a colonial life in post-colonial times and a stranger in Britain, the other homeland, because he/she gazes at its people from the perspective of an Anglo-African.

The work of Roman Jakobson is a foundation for stylistics. Key aspects of Jakobsonian stylistics have included taking account of parallelisms in poetry and the equivalences these set up. Another feature of Jakobson inspired stylistics has been a focus on deviation at the morphological, grammatical, semantic, phonological and graphological level. Deviation at the phraseological level, however, has not received much attention. In other words, there has not been much focus on how literary texts may deviate from lexico-grammatical norms of usage which show up in large corpora. Jakobson, of course, did not have access to very large computer databases of English to check phraseological norms and so it would have been very difficult to intuit these. But we do now have access to such data and so can spot deviations from phraseological norms in a literary text.

From retrospecting to the work of Jakobson, this paper then prospects forward in arguing that employing large corpora to reveal phraseological deviation in a literary text can be useful for cognitive approaches to stylistics where the notion of the schema is drawn upon. While analysis of how literary texts can lead to schema refreshment is often illuminating and compelling (e.g. Cook, 1994 and Semino, 1997), in the absence of empirical grounding it remains speculative and relative to the individual interpreter (Carter, 1999). However, schemata can receive some empirical grounding using corpus techniques. Phraseological regularities as revealed by a concordancer can be taken as evidence of our habitual expectations with regard to particular usage. Thus, these co-textual patterns can be seen as analogous to schemata, which represent contextual patterns of recurrence. In my talk, I look at a contemporary poem. I show, via a large corpus of contemporary everyday English, that the poem's grammatical equivalences in Jakobsonian terms are actually not equivalent from a phraseological perspective. This is because of deviance within relevant phraseologies. Given that phraseological norms are analogous to schemata, I show how this tension between grammatical equivalences and lack of phraseological equivalences in the poem helps us to account more empirically for how schemata can be disrupted in the reading of a literary text and thus lead to cognitive refreshment.

In this paper, I will discuss a curse as a powerful speech act in Neil Simon's comedy, Fools. The curse here means 'a supernatural power' that causes unpleasant things to happen to someone, rather than swearing or insulting that is more common today (COBUILD). The curse plays an important role both in the development of the plot and as humorous stimuli. The curse itself is not humorous in the play, of course, but its effects on the cursed characters are very funny.

The play is about a village where all the people believe that they have been made ignorant by the curse cast on them a long time ago. Therefore, a lot of comical moments come from the characters' illogical talking, misinterpretations of others' words, and inappropriate conducts in rituals. I will analyse some aspects of the speech act being exploited in order to contribute to the creation of the certain kinds of humour in the comedy. I will also point out that a strong belief system has an impact on the characters.

In recent decades, phraseology, or the study of fixed expressions and idioms (henceforth FEIs; Moon, 1998: 2), has received considerable attention from linguistic disciplines such as psycholinguistics, lexicography, computational linguistics and stylistics (although in this latter case perhaps the attention has been rather scant).

While some questions concerning phraseology are still the subject of lively debate, there are others on which agreement is almost unanimous, for instance, that institutionalization and lexicogrammatical fixedness are essential qualities of FEIs.

It is precisely these two characteristics, institutionalization and fixedness, that make FEIs an interesting topic for stylistics, since it is against the background of their familiarity and structural stability that speakers can make alterations or modifications which then may result in different stylistic effects: as D. Tannen says 'fixity in expression can encourage, rather than discourage, creativity' (Tannen, 1987: 223).

Some authors have pointed out that FEI modification is indeed at the heart of much wordplay (Mel'…uk, 1995: 213). Kjellmer, for instance, claims that 'deviations from a collocational norm can be used intentionally with a definite end in view'; he adds that Shakespeare's clowns and fools make abundant use of the trick for humorous purposes (Kjellmer, 1996: 123). However, apart from a few examples and references of this nature, Shakespeare's wordplay, traditionally analysed as a lexical phenomenon, does not seem to have received sufficient attention from a phraseological perspective.

This paper is an attempt address this issue, in the conviction that a phraseological approach to Shakespeare's wordplay can greatly enhance our perception and understanding of this salient feature of his style. To this end, this creative use of FEIs is discussed as a conversational strategy exploited by the author to different effects. Several kinds of FEI manipulation will be presented and analysed in order to show their characteristics and behaviour in the contexts of the plays in which they appear.

It is often the case that reading literature is a different set of experiences from watching a film, which is based on a literary work. In reading literature, messages are conveyed through a set of resources based around the written word while films use a different set of resources based around visuals and sound.

The starting point of this paper lies in the question: how can written literature can be 'translated' into other modes with the best intention of sustaining the 'flavour' of the original work. In this paper, I would like to focus on some specific parts in literary works to be compared with the equivalent scene in the film version, with particular reference to the way in which the 'core message' is represented. In particular, the functional potential of written words (in literary texts) is considered in relation to that of other modes such as the visual and sound. In so doing, I would like to explore what language does in written works and what language (in the form of either narrative or conversation between actors) does in the film, in other words, if there is any difference or shift in the role of language when it is used as a mode in the given context and when it is used in combination with other modes such as visuals and sound. Questions arise as to what aspects of meaning in written texts can be translated into what kind of meaning using other modes of communication.

The literary works to be discussed are The Remains of the Day by Kazuo Ishiguro, the booker prizewinner in 1989 and The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. With respect to the former, the dialogue between the characters is highlighted and the narrative passage is used for the analysis in the latter.

This paper explores the ways in which readers navigate through interactive hypertext narratives and use this to stimulate the creation of possible worlds in the writing of their own fiction. The paper examines the possible relationship between gender, form and reader response in the following ways. First, I debate the correlation between the 'spatialised' or 'landscape' metaphor for hypertext narrative versus the linearity of print narrative and the stereotypical characteristics of non-linear 'female plots' and linear 'male plots' (cf Brooks' distinction, 1984). Second, I use the reading patterns and comments of actual readers to ascertain the validity of Murray's (1997) suggestion that male readers prefer action-centred plots while female readers are more concerned with character development. Finally, I use the creative writing of these readers to examine the ways in which gender does and does not influence the creation of possible worlds. Generally, the paper raises questions about the differences and similarities between hypertext and print narratives and the extension of existing narratological models (especially Labov's (1972) work on evaluation and Hoey's (2001) participant-matrices) to develop theoretical models for explaining their structure, function and reader's interaction with them.

Palacas, Maria J.

Cooper, Lydia

Theory: Literary Theory and Authorial Intent: The Power of the Mind--Maria J. Palacas

Two problems plague literary theory. First, linguistic theory, misunderstood, drove literary theorists (e.g., Barthes) away from the realities of the text, away from the notion of literariness, hence also away from belief in the author's intentions, since the text appeared not to offer a location for objective reality (Banfield). Second, the disbelief in authorial intention is grounded in a too simplistic, non-mentalistic view.

Concerning the first, analogy with Chomskian theory should never have been taken to promise text-limited inductive means of ascertaining artistic design in a text. In linguistic theory, the text becomes the source of evidence for the mentalistic realities that define a language. Uniform grammatical judgments about the text (e.g., verb and subject agree) give rise by intuitive leap to hypotheses about mental realities (e.g., inflections govern syntax). Likewise, literary theory begins with belief in design. Insight into a particular text depends on an intuitive leap from uniform perceptions and observations of the text (Kiparsky) to design-hypotheses, whose validity is in the extent of insight they lend to the relationship between the text and its expressive impact.

Concerning the second, the discovery of design implies an author (Lodge). Crucial here is the distinction between the author's conscious and intuition-driven intentions (Jakobson). Guided by the intuitive, the author makes syntactic choices forcing readings that will conform to that intuitive intent. Thus, in Mrs. Dalloway, Peter, for whom reading Clarissa's letter "needed the devil of an effort," is "directly quoted" as reading "'How heavenly it was to see him. She must tell him that,'" words which he could not literally have read. Through this brilliant, ultimately intuitively motivated choice of syntactic construction in quotation marks, it is Virginia Wolf who forces the reader to perceive Peter's psychological processing of the letter.

Pedagogy: The Power of Belief--Arthur L. Palacas

The essence of a pedagogy of literary design is to encourage students to believe in the reality of the artistry and the artist (readings from Jakobson, Kiparsky, Lodge), and to have faith in their own ability, as lover's of literature, to gain insight into the text by the sometimes frightening art of discovery by hypothesis. Also needed, of course, is a bag of observation tools such as provided by 1970's style transformational nomenclature, lists of semantic oppositions, and a calling of attention to the visible aspects of the text-sentence length, punctuation types and density, paragraph sizes, degree and placement of dialogue, quantity and placement of parenthetical constructions.

Practice--Lydia Cooper

A graduate student paper on Cormac McCarthy's All the Pretty Horses explores authorial design by suggesting that the novel's dual themes of morality and mortality are played out at the core syntactic level of the text. The interior reflective consciousness of the main character is hidden, revealed only in the use of fragments and run-ons. This consistent pattern, creating the sense of inner/psychologically underground moral consciousness, indicates that the author's design is profoundly artistic, although perhaps only guided by the author's intuitive sense of what structural elements would satisfy the desired impact of the story.

Taking as its starting point the notion of semantic design in relation to verbal art, this paper will present proposals for the mapping of covert patterning in a literary corpus. By treating a work by a particular writer as a text archive or corpus, one can systematically investigate the patterns of lexical and grammatical selection that are consistently favoured by the artist and hence begin to explicate the underlying semantic design that distinguishes that work. In order to make arguments for such markedness or deviation in a particular text, other literary and general corpora can be used as contrastive archives that establish normative 'probabilities' for features of English text. The use of a relational database greatly facilitates this quantitative approach to stylistics and encourages the examination of more delicate choices and interactions of lexicogrammatical features. Graphic devices can then be used to display findings and to map the consistency and variation in semantic patterning across the corpus. Contrasts with other corpora can also be visually displayed in this way. To exemplify this approach, methodology and selected findings from a corpus-based study of the novel The English Patient will be presented, using a Systemic Functional framework for linguistic description. Ondaatje, a writer who employs a high degree of crafting in his work even at the most delicate level of selection, encourages such an investigation and his preoccupation with spatial representations in his poetry and prose provides a critical focus for the study of semantic design in this novel.

Starting in the late 1980s scholars from different fields have increasingly taken an interest in Rap music and Hip Hop culture more generally, exploring its discourse, history, politics, economics, social conditions, representations of gender and race, and its international cultural appeal. However, very little formal work has been done on Hip Hop music as music, and Rapping as a song-like literature. Part of the reason for this gap is a lack of interest - even steep resistance - to close transciption of sonic detail as a means of interpreting style. The other difficulty is that the aesthetic dominant of Rapping as a vocal form seems to be its metrical organization; but traditional theories of metre in literary, and even music studies, are inadequate to a description of the syncopated, complex rhythms in Hip Hop music. In this paper, it is claimed that rappers compel the listener to participate in the construction of a fantastic personal identity. The identity appears to be drawn from the social context of the rapper, but the image of this identity is the voice itself integrated with the 'beat' and the musical background and associated with other components of Hip Hop (i.e. breakdancing, graffiti, clothes, etc.). To demonstrate this claim, a modified version of Lerdhal and Jackendoff's theory and representation of metre (proposed in A Generative Theory of Tonal Music 1983) is presented. Then, with several examples, it is used as a 'flowing' index, against which different linguistic, narrative and musical features of rapping are organized in time. The overall pattern of an index illuminates the sense of style in the different examples. Finally, it is suggested that the prominent features observed in 'scansion' are coherent and in harmony with the social commentary centered around the rapper's 'fantastic personage'.

Poetic text interpretation integrates language learning with culture work. Poetry is the soul of a nation. Poetic texts are the best mirrors of human cultures and it is through them we can discover and identify the culture specific conceptual configurations characteristic of a particular people. Text interpretation is context-dependent because the linguistic codification as well as the decodification are exposed to the impact of all kinds of non-linguistic factors including the poet's and reader's personal, social, cultural, and ideological contexts.

It is assumed that poetic images which embody the HOME concept are affected by the cultural models. The research focuses on revealing specific cultural models that underlie the conceptual plane of poetic images which embody the HOME concept.

I am analyzing American poetry of XX-XXI centuries and comparing it with Ukrainian poetry of the same period. The project's fulfillment requires comprehensive survey of cognitive approach to the study of poetry, proceeding further with the field experiments on text interpretation in Cultural Studies. A mixture of empirical qualitative (questionnaires) and quantitative methods (field experiments and statistics) are appropriate in this research project as they will enable to verify my hypothesis on the informants and native speakers.

The research will be done in the particular area of cross-cultural differences in poetic texts of American and Ukrainian poetry, cross-cultural comparisons of reader response, and in the general area of literary text designs.

I will focus on the following aspects:

· Cultural differences between American and Ukrainian images which embody the HOME concept

· Cultural HOME concept in American poetry and the ways of its interpretation into Ukrainian

· Cultural HOME concept in Ukrainian poetry and its interpretation into English

· Human values shared both by Americans and Ukrainians

It will throw light on the common and distinctive features of American and Ukrainian cultures which will be helpful for mutual understanding between peoples.

Shabanova, Kseniya

In our research paper, we take an effort to investigate the problem of synaesthesia in Emily Dickinson's poetry.

It is a common fact that synaesthesia is a highly individual phenomenon, and, therefore, peculiar to a limited number of people. Being a synaesthete, the poet creates the unique virtual world which is substantially different from the stereotyped vision of the world of people devoid of synaesthesia. Perceptual abnormality experienced by Emily Dickinson and later on reflected in her verses basically influences the reader's perception of notions of the textual world; thus the poetry takes the reader to the exquisite world where everything is perceived through a new palette of colours and range of sounds. The textual secret lies in the synaesthetic metaphor that appears to be a kind of prism through the light of which the world acquires a new colouring and meaning. The inventory of synaesthetic metaphors and the questionnaire will help us to depict two pictures of the world in their juxtaposition: synaesthetic vs stereotyped. Presumably, the world created by Emily Dickinson can be perceived by non-synaesthetes the way the poet did. We plan to launch a questionnaire to check it empirically.

So our hypothesis is that if the world appears in unusual colours, it acquires a fundamentally new meaning.

For some time being, Charles S. Peirce was quite a prominent figure in linguistics. His classification of signs seemed to be a valuable tool for analyzing the relationship between syntax and semantics of natural language, be it from a semiotic (cf. Jakobson 1965), or cognitive point of view (cf. Givón 1995). His classification of signs still figures prominently in many introductory linguistic textbooks, mostly accompanied by some cursory remarks about his ideas of the sign. But the linguistic preoccupation with Peirce's writings did rarely amount to intensive studies. His philosophical and logical ideas remained outside the scope of linguistic interests, unfortunately. For Peirce's insights can help to model a theory of dialogical meaning which seems to share certain parallels with attempts in recent, logically oriented approaches to the analysis of meaning in dialogue, e.g., dynamic semantics (cf. Müller 1999, Sowa 1997), but especially game-theoretical semantics (cf. Hilpinen 1995, Pietarinen 2003). Other than current approaches trying to capture dialogical meaning with logical tools (cf., e.g., Asher & Lascarides 2003), a theorizing with Peircean logics does not exclude foundational issues mostly left unexplained in logical approaches to natural language analysis. Peirce's thorough investigation of signs and their use, and his pragmatic approach prevent him from excluding epistemic agents and their ways of dealing with signs from his logic as semeiotic. Most interestingly, for Peirce, hermeneutical procedures are involved in every interpretation of signs, even logical ones. These procedures set a basis for and enable the (dia-)logical relations which can be established in and between assertions and other speech acts.

The validity of these relations is not to be fixed beforehand, but has to be considered in regard to the aims they were used for. Peirce does not contribute an anthropologically and epistemologically impossible state of omniscience to actual sign users; and beliefs, intentions and other 'private' features play an important role in his pragmatic theory. Therefore, with Peirce it is possible to sketch a more appropriate approach to the analysis of meaning constitution in dialogue than with the actual formal semantic tools; this does not mean stepping outside the analytical tradition, but enriching analytical assumptions with hermeneutical ones. The richness of a Peircean approach to a semantics for dialogues becomes evident, e.g., when his logic is applied to 'natural' information seeking games: questions and answers in ongoing dialogues. But irradiating processes of understanding and explanation and their interweavement, this approach might even be of interest beyond the fields of logics and linguistics.

In 1963, Lionel Abel coined the term "metatheatre" to identify theatre that is self-reflexive, that uses the stage to explore theatricality and the relation between the theatre and life. Metatheatre employs a broad range of devices, including the play within the play, the ceremony within the play, the role within the role, literary and real-life reference within the play, and self-reference within the play (Hornby 1986). More recently, the concept of metatheatre has expanded to include the playwrights' intentional intertextuality with previous dramatic eras, as well as the adaptation, re-contextualization and transcoding of previous theatrical models in order to challenge and redefine the conventions of contemporary theatre (Boireau 1997).

Among contemporary playwrights who have been preoccupied with the capacity of the theatre to comment on its own nature as an artistic medium is Anglo-French-American playwright, Timberlake Wertenbaker whose work celebrates the redemptive power of the theatre and its potential for education and reformation. In Our Country's Good (1988), Wertenbaker explores theatricality as an opportunity for self-discovery and identity fulfillment for people who have been brutalized. The play is loosely based on the Australian writer Thomas Keneally's novel, The Playmaker that recounts the theatrical production of George Farquhar's The Recruiting Officer put on by English convicts in Australia in 1789. The play is primarily concerned with theatre as a liberating force that allows the convicts, through acting out scripted roles and through the rehearsal process, to rebuild their identities.

Wertenbaker's The Love of the Nightingale (1988), a powerful reworking of the Greek myth of Philomele, explores the absence of the voices of women in giving dramatic expression to their moral interpretations of such myths. The play includes a staging within the play of Euripides' play, Hippolytus and an enactment of Bacchic rituals. The Phaedra myth of Euripides' drama interanimates the text of the play which examines the same themes of sex, guilt and male and female sexuality. At the same time, the play raises questions about the power of theatre and its moral and educational function. Self-reflexivity is clear in both plays through the use of metatheatrical devices to discuss and problematize a number of issues, including the authority of the classical text, improvisation, gender cross-casting and the moral function of theatre.

This paper will explore the metatheatrical conventions and the different forms of reflexivity in Our Country's Good and The Love of the Nightingale, which celebrate the capacity of the theatre and the theatrical to function as modes of survival and change.

This paper will discuss Francis Ponge's proposition of (in the terms of Jacques Derrida) 'new science of reading' which, in the event, substitutes old codes of literary analysis, according to a constellation of premises. His notion of the mise en abyme (placement in abyss), is meant to deisgnate the way in which operations of reading and writing are represented in the text.

The study will present Ponge's poetic collection, Le parti pris des choses, as a textual reaction against perceived absurdness and non-uniqueness, within the universe. This act may be viewed as a form of 'phenomenological' resistance. Use of the term 'phenomenological' relates, here, to the Heideggerian and Husserlian sense of 'letting things show themselves for themselves'. This involves an uncovering of the life world from the distortions imposed upon it by western philosophy. The poet's own philosophical approach may be considered 'phenomenological', insofar as it challenges the primacy of intellectualism, in epistemology, which claims that knowledge requires both abstraction, from experience, and construction of theoretical boundaries. The Cartesian isolated 'cogito' which, constantly, strives to grasp the world, is replaced with a phenomenological approach, exposing knowledge as the direct result of an essential experience of world in language and of world as language.

This plane of resistance may be seen as a reaction to the concept of 'présence de soi' which, in Western Metaphysics, concerns itself with the belief of a single point of origin, an attempt to grasp a timeless, unchanging essence behind, above, or underneath, the contingency of experience. Ponge refers to the constant human struggle to 'close the metaphysical void' and proceeds to condemn metaphysics, in his statement that: 'ontological fear is a vicious fear'.

The poems, of Le parti pris des choses, exist as a realisation of the contingency of man and language, as essays on expression. Man can only evaluate himself by considering things other than himself. A firmer grasp of language leads to a firmer grasp of the self. The act of self-renewal through the renewal of the object is facilitated, only through the poetic self-revolt of language. Defence of the poet is reliant upon the self-resistance of language. This paradox forms the foundational logistics of Le parti pris des choses.

This paper presents an analysis of the poem 'Incident' (1969, Ellmann et al. 1988) by the African American poet Amiri Baraka. The analysis focuses on the transitivity and agentivity patterns in the poem. Baraka believes that "[t]he Black Artist's role...is to report and reflect so precisely the nature of society...that other men will be moved by the exactness of his rendering." (1965, Waldman 1996) Ironically, in 'Incident' this exactness and precision is achieved by obscurity and confusion.

The poem is a fragmented account of a murder, divided into sections reflecting two points of view (POV) created by different registers and modalities (Simpson 1993). One focalizer appears to be an authority, the police, perhaps. This POV is represented in the title (incident, a term used by the police) and in the text's opening and closing clauses, thus giving it great prominence, even though it comprises only a third of the total text. The other focalizer is less clear; it could be a witness to the murder, or a friend of the victim.

The confusion in the poem comes from several sources, including "fuzzy" boundaries between the two POVs, reference to participants solely with pronouns or noun phrases expressing their roles, and non-sequential narration of events. However, the most consistent source of obscurity in the poem is the result of manipulating transitivity so that the murderer and the victim appear in a clause referring to the murder only once. This is achieved in several ways: 1) phrases lacking either subjects or tensed verbs or both, e.g. "dying, dead"; 2) non-specific pro-forms, e.g. "he came back from somewhere to do what he did;" 3) intransitive constructions, e.g. "he came back", "he fell"; 4) transitive constructions where the murderer and/or the victim are represented only by instruments or body parts, e.g. "the speeding bullet, tore his face"; and 5) stative constructions where aspects of the murder are "buried" morphologically or semantically, e.g. "the murderer was skillful".

The use of intransitive constructions is the most predominant device, running through the texts for both POVs. However, the other devices are not evenly distributed: use of truncated phrases and instruments/body parts being found most often in the witness's text, and non-specific pro-forms and statives in the authority's text. The overall impression is of detailed but fragmented information from the witness, and the authority's vague, general statements concerning a static situation, rather than an event with an agent and a patient. So, while neither focalizer's text has clear transitivity, the witness's inability to assign responsibility to the murderer is due to lack of information; the authority's is due to a willful cover-up. In either case, however, the murderer will probably go free and the victim remain unavenged.

Elsewhere Baraka says, "A compromise would be silence. To shut up, even such risk as the proper placement of verbs and nouns." (1964, Harper and Walton 2000) In 'Incident' he does not compromise; he has certainly used noun and verb placement effectively to throw light on the way justice can be stifled by obscurity.

The intervals would be superfluous if the fact of division alone sufficed, as the differentiation of one stanza from another could be signalled by a different sort of notation; for example, divisions could be indicated by a typographical device such as a horizontal line between stanzas, or, more fancifully, by the printing of each successive stanza in a darker shade of ink. Like certain marks of punctuation, such as the comma and the semi-colon, the inter-stanzaic interval both separates and joins; it is an active, not passive, intermediary between stanzas, negotiating their relation by means of the gestural, semantic, or even syntactic value with which it is charged by the words that surround it. This is not to say that all poems with inter-stanzaic space use it to advantage, any more than all verse poems use meter to advantage; my argument is that the interval between stanzas is a stylistic resource whose richness of potential is exploited often enough by accomplished poets to warrant serious and sustained critical attention which has hitherto been lacking.

Within the Cognitive Linguistis framework, metaphor is typically defined as a partial mapping (i.e. a set of correspondences) between two domains, a source domain and a target domain, in such a way that we can reason and speak about the target domain in terms of the knowledge and language associated with the source domain. It has been recently argued that conventionalized metaphoric patterns may be decomposed into more basic mappings called primary metaphors (cf. Grady 1997; Lakoff & Johnson 1999). Primary metaphors are based on direct correlations between subjective and sensorimotor experience within recurring experiential scenarios (or primary scenes; cf. Grady & Johnson 2002). Lakoff & Johnson (1999: 205-6) argue that, by virtue of the primary metaphor existence is being located here, we conceptualize existence as "presence in a bounded region around some deictic center, that is, around where we are" (e.g. Things come and go out of existence). The experiential basis for this metaphor lies in our perception that objects exist somewhere in space.

However, existence-related notions may also be understood metaphorically in terms of other source domains. It has been argued that existence is metaphorically structured in English in terms of at least four conventionalized mappings of a generic nature: EXISTENCE IS SPACE (e.g. Things come and go out of existence), EXISTENCE IS PERCEPTION (e.g. 53,000 jobs in engineering will disappear next year), EXISTENCE IS FUNCTIONALITY (e.g. A defence counsel would tear his evidence to shreds on that fact alone), and EXISTENCE IS POSSESSION (e.g. He gave the field of Engineering its very existence) (Santibáñez 2001). The last two ones are partly related to the two branches of the EVENT-STRUCTURE metaphor, according to which different aspects of the internal structure of events (including states, changes, and attributes) are conceptualized in terms of motion in space (the LOCATION EVENT-STRUCTURE metaphor) and object manipulation (the OBJECT EVENT-STRUCTURE metaphor) (Lakoff 1993: 219-229; Lakoff & Johnson 1999: 170-234). These high-level mappings are conceptually grounded in what Lindner (1981: 171) calls the region of interactive focus, i.e. "the realm of shared experience, existence, action, function, conscious interaction and awareness". In broad terms, when an entity accesses this subjective region it may become available to us in all those ways (i.e. we can experience it, interact with it, think about it, or even make use of it in order to obtain something else). The idea of existence is included in Lindner's definition on a par with all the other facets of shared experience. However, the latter are more directly apprehended than the concept of existence, which is often understood metaphorically in terms of them by virtue of perceived connections within the region of interactive focus.

With these considerations in mind, I analyze in this paper other primary metaphors which figure prominently in the conceptualization of existence in English and Spanish (e.g. PERSISTING IS REMAINING ERECT, ORGANIZATION IS PHYSICAL STRUCTURE, EXISTENCE IS PERCEPTION, and the mappings of the EVENT-STRUCTURE metaphor) and which may be variously related to the high-level mappings discussed in Santibáñez (2001). The comparison reveals certain cross-linguistic differences and allows to explore the usefulness for contrastive analysis of some potentially universal patterns described in the Cognitive Linguistics literature. It should be noted, however, that the universality of primary metaphors is not a matter of innate knowledge, but it rather depends on the degree of universality of the associated embodied experiences.

In this paper I attempt to explore the possibilities that Cognitive Poetics methods and tools offer for film studies by providing a cognitive analysis of Dogville (2003), a feature film directed by Lars von Trier. The film tells what is basically a simple story: a beautiful young woman, played by Nicole Kidman, looks for shelter in Dogville, a lost Depression-era village, only to find herself progressively victimized at the hands of its seemingly inoffensive inhabitants. The moral and physical damage inflicted on Grace, the heroine, has been understood by some critics as an attack on US policy (and in fact there are explicit prompts throughout the film favouring that kind of reading); the story, however, may also be interpreted in more general terms as a highly pessimistic portrayal of human nature regardless of nationality.

It may be argued from the perspective of Cognitive Poetics that the same fundamental conceptual mechanisms manifest themselves in different dimensions of the film (structural, verbal, visual) in order to reinforce its pervading allegorical overtones. In this sense, special attention is paid to the central role played by image-schematic thinking and its metaphorical projection from the realm of the physical onto more abstract domains (cf. Johnson 1987; Lakoff 1987). By way of illustration, the film presents a cycle structure, enacted symbolically in the seasons of the year. Grace escapes from a situation of oppression (embodied by the figure of her father, a powerful gangster) but, after a period of apparent freedom and self-fulfilment, she becomes the victim of the inhabitants of Dogville, who end up enslaving her. The protagonist eventually recovers her 'freedom', but at the cost of going back to the oppressive world which she wanted to leave behind. The CYCLE image-schema is invoked at a structural level, but it is left clear that the cycle is not a perfect one: at the end Grace has lost her innocence and has accepted the standards of her father's world.

The metaphorical conceptualization of oppression makes use of different source domains, frequently of a schematic nature. For instance, the axiological charge of the CONTAINER image-schema is alternatively exploited in order to characterize Dogville both positively (i.e. the container provides protection from external forces) and negatively (i.e. the walls of the container may prevent contained entities from moving outside). The CONTAINER metaphor is aptly reinforced by the minimalist scenery, a pseudo-theatrical space representing the village, with chalk marks instead of buildings. In visual terms, oppression is most vividly materialized in the humiliating device which the inhabitants of Dogville fasten around Grace's neck so that she cannot run away from the village. Other recurring image-schematic patterns include FRAGMENTATION (e.g. the numerous instantiations, both verbal and visual, of the DIVIDED SELF metaphor), UP-DOWN orientation (e.g. the ironic narrator is omniscient and looks at characters from above, both physically and morally; some shots reinforce this impression), and different aspects of force dynamics (esp. the notion of BALANCE, the main goal of the whimsical philosopher character).

Among the many problems the translator of literary texts has to face, one of the less investigated is the importance of grammatical gender for the personification of generic nouns. This difficulty is especially common in folk tales, fairy tales and fables, where inanimate elements of nature (the sun, the moon, the wind, trees, springs, etc), animals, birds, insects or even abstract concepts (death, fear, evil or goodness) are personified.

The fable is a particularly good example, since its characters are usually animals, birds and insects transfering to human beings the stereotypes attributed to them (the wolf: cruelty; the fox: cunning; the rabbit: cowardice or naivety; the donkey: stupidity). Therefore, the translation of the fable presents considerable difficulties from both the linguistic and the poetic points of view, since in many languages (i.e. Romance or Semitic languages), generic terms for animal species present a unique, definite grammatical gender. When personified, the characters follow the natural course dictated by morphology : thus, in La Fontaine's fables, masculine nouns such as le chat (the cat), le lion (the lion), le renard (the fox), le corbeau (the raven) are referred to as men, while feminine nouns: la souris (the mouse), la belette (the weasel), la cigale (the grasshoper) and la fourmi (the ant) are women; in translation however, this «logic of the morphology» might be reversed, even if the translation is performed within the same family of languages (i.e. French ® Romanian): in Romanian, for example, cat (pisica) and fox (vulpea) are both feminine nouns, while grasshopper (greierele) is masculine (cf. their French equivalents above).

The Grasshopper and the Ant is one of the best known and the most widely translated fables. Through a comparison of La Fontaine's original with its translations in English and in Romanian, with Kriloff's version of it in Russian and the translation of Kriloff's fable in Hebrew, we shall try to show the problems posed by the relation between the grammatical gender of generic nouns and the sex of the corresponding characters in the fable. The different solutions proposed by different authors will be examined, as well as the way in which they affect the global interpretation of the work.

"Die kleine Emmi" is part of the collection „Neue Gleise", an important contribution to modern German literature, co-authored by Arno Holz and Johannes Schlaf, and published in 1892. The unsuspecting title suggests an idyllic story; but the topic of the tale is much closer to Emile Zola's "Histoire naturelle et sociale d'une famille sous le second empire" and Gustave Flaubert's "Madame Bovary". Little Emmi falls victim of a rape within her own family. The rapist is her uncle.

The poetic representation of rape shares important aspects with representations of rape in real life. Both are linguistic acts. And one of the major problems representing real sexual violence lies in the difficulties to communicate the experience. But it is only through the act of narration and description that the experience becomes a punishable crime. Because usually, there are no witnesses, and often material proofs are non-existent. So the facts of the case are merely linguistic expressions (cf. Künzel 2003, 257, and Siebpfeiffer 2004). Consequently, the linguistic competence of the victim plays an important role in the communication of the individually perceived sufferings. Therefore, a careful study of the linguistic representation of rape in literature gains importance; the particularities of telling the experience of violence can be studied and analyzed. And the results can proof important for developing adequate and scientifically firm approaches to deal with representations of violence given by victims in real life.

In addition to the systematic aspects of rape-telling, there is an historical dimension. Historical research ignored the fact of sexual violence and crime for a long time. But sexual violence and its linguistic representations are bound to culturally valid norms just like the conception of sexuality itself: "talk about rape has its history, its ideology, and its dominant narratives - narratives that [...] are nationally specific." (Sielke 2002, 2; cf. Hommen 1999) So, an adequate analysis of the poetic representation of rape has to refer to the social, cultural, and historical settings in which the crime takes place.

The paper will show how literary language gives voice to experiences which daily life and jurisdiction mostly ignored in the 19^th century. Furthermore, in analyzing how emotions are represented, it will address a field largely neglected in linguistics and communication theory, namely the whole complex of language and emotions.

The idea presented in this paper is to view elements of texts in a set-theoretical perspective, and to analyze the relations among quantifiable elements of texts using formal methods. In the paper I briefly introduce the formal basis for the method and apply it to a case from classical narratology. Finally I give a number of examples for which the method seems promising.

Set theory is at its core a very simple mathematical theory (taught in pre-school) that gives rise to intriguing questions about the relations between groups of elements. Set-theoretical operations such as intersection and union make it possible to formally analyze and compare arrangements of elements. In the present study I use an approach known as Formal Concept Analysis (Ganter and Wille; 1999). A formal context is constituted by a set of objects, a set of attributes, and a set of instances where an object possesses an attribute. Here, formal objects is defined as pairs (A,B) where A covers the objects and B covers the attributes. A partial order is defined over the formal objects. This structure can be visually represented in a concept lattice. (See figures 1 and 2 for examples of such lattices.)

Informally speaking, this means that anything that can be represented in a cross table can be analyzed using this method. Obviously many aspects of literary analysis do not meet this criterion, but the simplicity of the language (a binary relation / predication) entails that various results of literary analyses indeed can be represented in this manner. Especially comparative and contrastive analyses may benefit from such an approach, e.g. indicators of thematics or of character traits. By considering story elements as sets, formal methods can be applied to answer a number of questions regarding similarities and differences between the objects in question.

The method is illustrated by reconsidering one of the most influential analyses of modern narratology, namely Vladimir Propp's groundbreaking work (Propp; 1968). The results from Propp's own analysis is converted to a formal context where the tales are listed as objects and the narrative functions as attributes. The resulting concept lattice sheds new light on this classical contribution to modern narratology. In addition, a number of sub-lattices can be extracted, by means of which partial structures (such as beginnings and endings) can be examined in detail. The case reveals that the method can also be used to evaluate the criteria for listing the attributes, e.g. evaluating the theoretical construction itself.

This paper addresses the question of how narrative elements are interpreted at the levels of narrative syntax, narrative semantics and narrative pragmatics. These levels are matched to the three types of logical inferencing proposed by C.S. Peirce: abduction, induction and deduction. The objective of the theory is to shed light on the clash between rigid narrative structures and the open-endedness of narrative interpretation. In addition, it challenges the notion of narrative power.

At the atomic level, the prevalent logic of narrative competence is abduction. We only pay special attention to this level when an element is not transparently integrated into the higher levels of narrative structure. E.g. if we follow a character to the bathroom, we are forced to speculate what out of the ordinary event is to take place there, since visits to bathrooms usually are left out of the narrative economy. Individual elements only lend us very sparse clues as to its status in the narrative universe; a bathroom entrance may be a build-up to some sort of climax (as in Psycho), it may be a character trait (the man is nervous), it may, in fact be almost anything. It is an open invitation to hypothesizing.

At the level of narrative syntax, narrative elements are governed by the relationship of temporality and causality. Cause-effect relations are obviously incomplete as they occur. This is why, as we collect them; they are understood as inductive premises, leading towards this or that conclusion. The act of anticipating the outcome of a sequence of events can by necessity be nothing other than inductive. At this level the prevalent logic is induction.

At the semantic level, the relational pattern shifts from dyadic to triadic in order to incorporate the intentionality of the narrative. Consider for instance how characters are portrayed as 'good' and 'bad' relative to some system of value that cannot be found directly in the actions of the characters. (Man shoots cop - > man is a crook. Cop shoots crook -> cop is a hero... ) As narrative coherence is justified by semantic implications of narrative schemas, the prevalent logic is deduction: The value system (or systems) of the story-world stands as the generative principle from which all elements of the lower levels receive their significance.

At the pragmatic level narrative conclusions are drawn. But the interpretations of those conclusions with respect to the lives of the hearers are just as open-ended as the basic element itself. At the level of narrative pragmatics, we are once again left with the logical maneuvers of abduction: in order for conclusions to carry any weight, they must be judged in the same way as the minimal narrative element, that is, by abduction.

In terms of semiotics, we might say narrative comprehension begins with interpreting icons, and that the progression through narrative levels leads to the production of yet another icon. Narrative is, so to speak, an Icon Machine.

This study explores how points of view are shown linguistically in speeches by American President George W. Bush and Japanese Prime Minster Junichro Koizumi.

Phrases, such as "an axis of evil," stand out and clearly indicate the speakers' point of view, but modal verbs also play important roles. Although Simpson (1993) argues "a modal grammar" in connection with "point of view in narrative fiction," his framework is also applicable to the analysis of other discourse situations. Here presidential and prime minister's speeches are dealt with. Among various linguistic features, vocabulary and modal verbs are compared in the State of the Union Address by Bush and the Policy Speech (English translation) by Koizumi, in order to demonstrate how these linguistic tools are closely connected with their points of view.

In Bush's speech, two groups of words are often used, suggesting his dualism of "good" versus "evil." They are, for example, "freedom" and "justice" on the one hand, and "enemies," dangerous killers" and "outlaw regimes" on the other. "Must" is also effectively used, helping to produce an image of a "strong president." In Koizumi's speech, however, words containing evaluative meanings are rarely used. Instead, expressions such as "cooperation," "efforts" and "international" are frequently seen, reflecting the general attitude of the Japanese government; "making efforts within the principle of international cooperation."

The present study also examines the frequency of modal verbs in past State of the Union Addresses and considers the meaning of their diachronic changes. While the use of "may" and "must" has tended to decrease, "can" and "must" are apparently appearing more frequently.

Focusing on "must," which was effectively used in Bush's speech, we look closely at its specific instances from one of the State of the Union Addresses delivered by former president Bill Clinton. His 1997 Address shows the highest numbers of uses of "must" throughout the history of the States of the Union Address.

Words or phrases which express evaluation easily attract people's attention and can plainly indicate the speakers' point of view. "An axis of evil" is an exemplar. Compared with them, modal verbs such as "must," are inconspicuous. This does not mean, however, they are less significant in exploring the point of view expressed in those important speeches. Today, the State of the Union Addresses draws great attention not only in the United Stated but all over the world. We can not lightly ignore even a single word used in those speeches.

At several points in his The Art of the Novel, Henry James appropriates the language of scientific discovery in order to describe the elements and procedures that inform his production of narrative art. To be more specific: James figures his practice as a form of exploration, in which the writer encounters a series of problems the solutions for which require a topological--indeed, nearly geographical--scientistic mode of explanation. James's appropriation and deployment of this language may be seen as his method of negotiating the cultural landscape of fin de siècle Anglo-American culture, in which the incursions of Darwinian, Marxian, and Freudian systems of knowledge had opened enormous fissures in the post-Enlightenment model of self-present subjectivity. That is, these various innovations in the natural and social sciences created new, historically mediated conditions for the verification of knowledge, conditions that challenged the Lockean concept of the self-possessed subject, the coherence of which depends upon the subject's ability to think himself as autonomous and physically bounded--as the ultimate form of private property. James wrote alongside of these radical epistemological changes, and his influence in the rise of narrative studies calls for further consideration of his use of the language of discovery and its significance for more recent narratological studies.

In my paper, I will read closely James's "Preface to Roderick Hudson"; I will pay particular attention to his frequent use there of vocabularies and metaphorical scenarios informed by writings in the fields of geometry, surveying and cartography, and the natural sciences. I will compare the results of this analysis to Mieke Bal's formulation of the narrative fabula, as articulated in the second edition of her Narratology. I will argue that Bal's desire to read the fabula as nothing less than a naturally occurring function of human cognition reinscribes the anxieties enacted in James's "Preface…" and the desire to establish a universal model of subjectivity adequate to the psychic rigors of modern life.

This paper investigates how a community of Brazilian university undergraduates of a similar youthful age group expresses Affect both in their mother tongue and in English when talking about Literature in focus group discussions. The motivation for the present research was provided by Zyngier and Shepherd´s (2003) investigation into the kinds of concepts and representations of Literature undergraduates´ written work encapsulates. These authors´ analyses/findings suggest that their respondents adopt a posture which is far removed from the ideal in literary education, i.e., the language of positive Affect was thinly distributed in the data and rarely juxtaposed to Literature or to anything literary.

The present study has continued from Zyngier and Shepherd but here the objective is to verify whether by changing two variables in the data collection method, there would be any alteration in the Affect component of the results. Thus, the paper contrasts and compares the various ways in which undergraduates encode their views on and around the topic of Literature within spoken data obtained from two focus group discussions in both Portuguese (L1) and English (L2).

The presentation is divided into two sections. The first part shows how spoken data was transcribed, digitised and subsequently probed with the help of a computer software (Scott, 1996). It concentrates particularly on the methodological problems of labelling the data for the semantic category of Affect (Martin, 2003). The second part of the paper contrasts and compares the distribution of (explicit and implicit) Affect in the two languages.

A positive but unsurprising result obtained in the present research is that the focus group method of data collection has elicited more widespread and varied types of patterns of Affect than the written corpus. In fact, both focus groups discussions (in L1 and L2) are underpinned with Affect. However, the collocational patterns in L1 suggest that what is liked ( or disliked) and the manner in which it is liked or disliked underline a preference for language-specific Affect categories.

In present-day English, the default form of vocative is the first name. In other words, in the current English-speaking world, first name is the norm, either in shortened or full form, for addressing people, unless the speaker wishes to add some particular implications to the utterance, such as threat, doubt, humour, or deference. In historical data, however, it seems that social status and social roles influenced the usages of vocatives, and that the range of commonly used vocative forms was much wider than today in order to accommodate hierarchically complicated human relationships in the past.

In my paper, I analyse vocatives in a corpus of selected English gentry comedies in the 17th and 18th centuries. I investigate how the vocative form is chosen in relation to the interlocutors' gender and social relationships as well as social status. In particular, I focus on how gender and intimacy affect the choice of the vocative form. First, I examine the vocative form used between interlocutors of the same and mixed gender. Second, I look at whether the vocative form changes according to the degree of solidarity. With these two sets of patterns in mind, I investigate how lovers and spouses are depicted in terms of vocatives in Early Modern English drama.

Theoretically, my study draws on Brown and Levinson's (1987) politeness theory, Brown and Gilman's (1960) study of address terms, and Brinton's (1991) concept of pragmatic markers. A corpus-based study of vocatives from the perspective of historical pragmatics will shed some light on the pragmatic roles of address terms in general.

The paper deals with semantics of verse rhythmics on the material of Russian iambic tetrameter. This work is a part of the research being carried out within rhythm linguistics and aimed at the study of rhythm-making units of verse text with the help of exact methods. These methods allow to conduct an impartial analysis of rhytm-making units in different conditions. Properties of small rhythm-making units, corresponding to one rhythmic word, and their semantic connections are studied. Data received in the study allowed to hypothesize the existence in rhythmics of some analogy to the lexical system. The work continues the previous investigations. The data presented in the paper, were recieved on the base of the further development of the adopted method and provide a broadened outlook on the problem. The connection between the meaning of a word and its rhythmic structure was futher studied with the help of statistic methods. "Thesaurus of English words and phrases" by P.M.Roget was also used to find more exact notion of semantic potentials of rhythm-making units taken from "Eugueni Onegin" by A.Pushkin. The system of semantic potentials proved to be rather stable one. Additional data were recieved in favour of the hypothesis about the existence in rhythmics of somewhat analogy to the lexical system. The results also support the idea about the relationship between the semantic potential of a rhythm-making unit and its degree of contrast. Less contrast structures tend to group in the same sections of the thesaurus, while the most contrast structure shows very active semantic behaviour, tends to semantic diversity, and distinguishes clearly the features of each semantic class.

The recieved data can be used in modelling of the processes of generation and perception of verse text.

New Speech Acts for Old, or How to Make a Drama out of a Speech Act--Closing Plenary

The Speech Act of Apology in the film A Fish Called Wanda Mick Short, Lancaster University Although speech act theory has been applied the analysis of fictional texts, the accounts tend to use early Austinian/Searlian versions of speech act theory and do not make as much use as they could of the more recent work of sociolinguists commenting on how speech acts are instantiated in real conversational data. Nor do they relate speech act patterns in fiction to foregrounding theory in any detail. This paper discusses the ways in which both earlier and later forms of speech act analysis can be used in the stylistic analysis of fictional texts and also relates speech act theory to the stylistic theory of foregrounding. In particular, it explores in detail some of the apology sequences in A Fish Called Wanda and explores how they contribute (a) to the film's humour, (b) to the development of contrasting characterisations for two of the film's main characters, and (c) provide the film with a thematic 'speech act organisational structure' which complements its plot structure.

Cognitive poetics is an especially valuable framework for dealing with issues in genre theory. Cognitive theories of categories and categorization have tremendous potential to address a range of questions in genre theory that are otherwise intractable.

The value of prototype theory for describing and explaining the way genre members are connected to genre categories is obvious (Turner, Reading Minds). Genres are typically characterized by the works that centrally exemplify them, with extensions such as "secondary" or "metaphorical" members often noted. Schema theory and cognitive model theory are very well-suited to analyzing individual genres. The rhetorical features and feature-complexes that define genres can be treated as cognitive linguistics treats grammatical constructions and rhetorical figures--as pairings of conceptual content with symbolic form (Lakoff; Turner, "Figure"). Of course, the real test of the value of framing genre in this way is in working out in detail how cognitive theories, genre theories, and empirical facts of experience with literary genres can be squared away.

I want to begin to assess the potential of the "blending theory" to address one of the most pressing issues in genre studies: the analysis of mixing and hybridization among genres. Critics as diverse as Bakhtin, Colie, Derrida, Duff, Fowler, and Todorov have recognized the significance of the phenomenon, but they lack the conceptual instruments for rigorous analysis.

Turner and Fauconnier posit "blending" as a conceptual operation that occurring under uniform principles at all semantic levels, from word-formation to grammar, metaphor, analogy, fictional characters and scenes, etc. The theory evolved to account for complex metaphors using more than one "source" concept for a "target". Briefly, a conceptual blend projects selected elements from various conceptual "input spaces" into a "blend space" where a new construct is developed through processes of composition (matching of elements from different spaces), completion (filling out details of elements from existing knowledge), and elaboration ("running" the blend according to its own new logic).

My general goal is, via computer analysis, to investigate how the sound-aspect of a poem contributes to its meaning and emotional power. The proposed paper explores Keats' sonnet Bright Star! would I were steadfast as thou art. It is part of an ongoing study, inputting poems in English (transcribed in SAMPA, a keyboard-friendly phonetic alphabet) to a computer program, the Pattern-Finder, which offers a wide range of visual displays of the text. These show the frequencies and distributions over the poem of different phonetic-phonological features (e.g., plosiveness in consonants, lip rounding in vowels), either as single-feature congruency displays (e.g., all the plosives in a text) or matched displays (e.g., all the plosives, versus the rounded vowels). Using this tool, I hope to discover aspects of poetic technique inaccessible to the 'naked ear,' and thus to answer more fully than ever before the questions of what the music of poetry is, and how it works: how its sound-qualities establish tone and atmosphere, fit form to subject and facilitate memorization.

There is a long tradition of critics' trying to answer questions about the music of a poem by examining sound-repetitions such as alliteration and assonance, and noting how these produce patterns which support poetic meaning (see Guest (1882) and onwards, up to the New Critics such as Rosenthal (1974) and beyond). However, by applying knowledge of phonetic-phonological features to these questions, we can look even deeper. Features may also be repeating and forming patterns, (clustering, rhythmic occurrences, absences); by locating their distribution over a poem, we may be able to find types of patterning inacessible to traditional, non-computational analysis. We can then match these to our interpretation of different aspects of a poem's meaning (subject, emotional tone, movement, location of climax and so on), and so obtain a more complete set of answers to questions about its music.

Literary-critical focus on phonetics is not new (see Burke (1938) and articles by Hymes and Sebeok in Sebeok (1960)). It also connects with the study of phonetic symbolism, which, starting with Plato's Cratylus, challenges Saussurean arbitrariness by enquiring whether speech sounds may not carry inherent qualities, such as swiftness or brightness, (see Tolman (1887) and Sapir (1929) up to Magnus (1999),.Smolinsky (2001), and beyond). The new part of this project is to link the investigation of feature patterning and of phonetic symbolism to the use of the Pattern-Finder (designed and created by Smolinsky & Sokoloff, accessible at www. patternfinder.net). This tool allows an extensive range of analyses, single or combinatory, segmental and/or prosodic, and obviates both the labor and the potential for error in counting features 'by hand.'

Two displays from the intitial Bright Star run are attached to illustrate. The transcription indicates a rendition as close to Keats' own early-19th Century London dialect as possible, e.g., use of the low back rounded vowel, and lack of post-vocalic r. My approach will match feature frequency/distribution with literary analysis; features deemed significant are also matched with their traditional meanings in the literature of phonetic symbolism.

The poetic voice is often represented in the sound structure of a poem with the feature [voice]. We suggest that such representation may be iconic and interact with the phonological regularities of a language. This paper explores the phonological rule of voicing assimilation in English and in Russian in this regard.

In English, the regular inflectional allomorphy involves regressive voicing assimilation with stem-final consonants: gather[d], job[z] - clasp[t], lip[s]. We present examples from the poetry of C.P.Snodgrass to argue for this voicing assimilation as an iconic device: voicing represents emergence and sustaining of poetic voice and vocation, while devoicing indicates a conflict and stifling of the poetic voice.

In Russian, consonant voicing is also used as iconic representation of poetic voice. However, the scope of voicing assimilation in Russian differs from that in English in that the process is not restricted morphologically. In addition, Russian has the final devoicing rule. These linguistic differences introduce additional dimensions to the iconism of poetic voice, as we argue on the basis of examples in Boris Pasternak's poetry.

Previous linguistic analysis of poetic voice have been limited to the pragmatic aspects [Semino 1995]. While iconicity in language has enjoyed a recent resurgence of interest [Anderson 1998, Fischer and Naenny 2003, 2001, 1999, Violi 2000], attempts are rarely made to relate the semiotics of iconicity to the dynamic aspects of language structure, such as phonological alternations. Our continuing research targets this underrepresented area of study and suggests directions for exploring it cross-linguistically.

In recent years there has been much discussion and debate about communicative approaches to learning and teaching language. Such approaches are aimed at developing the "communicative" as opposed to the purely "linguistic" competence of learners. There is now fairly broad agreement that communicative competence is made up of four major strands: grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competence. (Canale and Swain, 1980). What is meant by grammatical competence is the mastery of the language code. "Such competence focuses directly on the knowledge and skill required to understand and express accurately the literal meaning of utterances" (Canale, 1983). It is this type of competence, which much classroom teaching seeks to promote. Sociolinguistic competence involves the ability to produce and understand utterances which are appropriate in terms of the context in which they are uttered. This necessarily involves a sensitivity to factors such as status, role, attitude, purpose, degree of formality, social convention and so on. There are some instances of inappropriate though perfectly well-formed utterances:

"Sit down please!" (Spoken to a distinguished guest - but with the intonation pattern reserved for commands).

"How old are you?" (Asked of a middle-aged foreign professor one is meeting for the first time).

"Why has your face gone red?" (Asked of someone who has just been embarrassed by an insensitive personal question).

Many of the communication failures experienced by learners of a foreign language have their origin in a lack of sociolinguistic competence. Discourse competence concerns the ability to combine meanings with unified and acceptable spoken or written texts in different genres. (Genre covers the type of text involved: narrative, argumentative, scientific report, newspaper articles, news broadcast, casual conversation, etc.). At first sight this might seem to be included under grammatical or sociolinguistic competence; but Widdowson's example (Widdowson, 1978) should illustrate the difference:

Speaker A: What did the rain do?

Speaker B: The crops were destroyed by the rain.

The reply is grammatically and sociolinguistically acceptable, but in discourse terms it simply "doesn't fit". ("It destroyed the crops" obviously would fit).

Strategic competence relates to the verbal and non-verbal strategies which learners may need to use either to compensate for breakdowns in communication or to enhance the effectiveness of communication. Under the former, one thinks of the use of hesitation fillers such as "um", "you know", etc. Paraphrase also plays a major role ( e.g. if one does not know the word for "book mark", it can be referred to as "the thing you put in a book to keep your place"). So also do catch-all words such as "thingummy", "whatsitsname", etc. (Faerch and Kasper, 1983). Strategic competence also refers to the intuitive feel by participants for the kind of communicative event they are engaged in and the direction it is moving in. This allows them to predict moves in advance and to nudge the discourse in the desired direction. (Maley, 1984).

This study is an intercultural literary response analysis which investigates into the reactions to descriptions of violence in literary texts. The theoretical framework for this research is Bortolussi & Dixon's Psychonarratology, Cambridge 2003.

The sample for the study were 27 Humanitities students from Germany, 24 Humanities students from the USA, and thanks to the REDES network 16 paritcipants from Brazil, mainly Humanities students as well. After a number of general questions regarding violence, such as: "I'm in favor of the death penalty in cases of extreme crimes", the participants were asked to read three short text passages and answer questions that tested their emotional and intellectual reactions to the violence depicted: "The text passage makes me feel anxious" for example. The text passages contain different forms of violence each, enabling a differenciated analysis of the intercultural differences in responding to and accepting violence in literature.

It has been generally assumed that the style used for the transcription of narrative viewpoint is characterised by a set of linguistic features which remain static throughout its literary history. This paper will explore the possibility of historicising free indirect style, i.e. of showing that writers' predilection for linguistic cues to evoke the perspective of their characters changes from one literary period to another. Moreover, this change can be systematically related to historical stages in the development of the novel, or to particular authors' concerns. I will try to interpret some changes in the practice of free indirect style that accompany the transition between George Eliot and D.H. Lawrence. I will further investigate the possibility of a stylistic transformation taking place within Lawrence's oeuvre and correlate it with the intuitions of literary critics about the development of his writing skills. The different historic varieties of the style could ultimately be correlated with ideological beliefs about consciousness and subjectivity characteristic of different epochs.

Bearing in mind the theme of this conference, it is my goal to venture into some contentions about the reader's status and style within a cross-disciplinary framework now that a "new world" will focus on both old and new "worlds" of poetics and linguistics seemingly with blurring frontiers.

"Optima dies… prima fugit." I turned back to the beginning of the third book, which we had read in class that morning. "Primus ego in patriam mecum… deducam musas"; "for I shall be the first, if I live, to bring the Muse into my country." (My Ántonia [1918] 1988: 169)

Willa Cather's motto could not but be one of the best starting points for my attempt to debate Jonathan Culler's "ideal reader" construct along with the panoply of definitions advanced by scholars from different strands from applied linguistics and related fields (pedagogical stylistics) to literary studies in the light of findings from a large-scale collaborative research undertaken in Madeira among adolescents and young adults.

In the course of the discussion of research findings, patterns of agency seemingly driven by cognition and emotion (Stockwell 2002; Semino & Culpeper 2002 and Gavins & Steen 2003, Burke 2003) might most likely come in-between the lines of Culler's construct and the ones advocated by both Pearson and Tierney (1984: 151-166), i.e, "expert reader" / "strategic reader", and Carter's (1997: 137) "interested reader". The latter's claims appear to offer a concern for the (Ong 1993) "technologising" of the world, the rising of a new middle class driven by different patterns of consumption and ever demanding job requirements which have deepened the gap between interested/experienced readers (Miall and Kuiken 2001) and informed readers (Williams 1993 [1958]). Consequently, they become, state Usher and Edwards (1996: 17), "active" but not "sovereign subjects... involved in discursive self-production which yet continually strive for a sense of coherence and continuity".

The problem of the locality of interpretation participates in one of the oldest problems in the theory of poetry: the relation between particular and universal, specific and general, part and whole. A poem is a concrete, particular object, but it is an object which seems to point beyond itself; as Aristotle observes in the Poetics, poetry is "a more philosophical and a higher thing than history, in that poetry tends rather to express the universal, history rather the particular fact" (1451b). But one of the things that makes poems enigmatic is that they aren't composed, like works of philosophy, of abstract, universal propositions; a poem gets at the universal only by way of the particular. Poems participate in universality to an extent unusual among art forms because their fundamental substance is language. A clear implication of this fact is that linguistics (syntax in particular, as I will argue) must be an essential component of any even remotely satisfactory critical method, and will thereby impose substantive constraints on interpretive methodology.

In this paper, I will consider these problems through an examination of some of the peculiar difficulties posed by the formal structure of John Keats' 'To Autumn.' In particular I want to revisit Donald C. Freeman's analysis of the poem, and to update his observations about the distribution of verbs in the poem in light of recent research into properties of unaccusative and unergative verbs. Freeman's analysis focuses on finding larger patterns in the syntax of the poem, and he attempts to derive a fairly detailed interpretation from those observations; his analysis neglects, however, many striking local effects which arise at crucial moments in poem (ambiguities, marginal or outright ungrammatical constructions, lineation effects, &c.). Through weighing these two kinds of data in relation to interpretive outcomes, and considering some of the theoretical assumptions underlying current work in the minimalist program, it becomes clear that, although both global and local observations can be useful, the structural conditions of local effects are the primary determinants of poetic meaning.

In recent years (from the mid-90's onwards), the alleged idiosyncratic dominion and hegemony of postmodernism has slowly begun to make way to a new resurgence of modernism. This new modernism, or, as I call it, "transmodernism" has somehow assimilated some of the features of its predecessor - postmodernism, while returning to some of the classic values of modernism: reinforcement of a strong, structured and original "narrative", greater appeal for the avant-garde and abstract art, daring inventions (as opposed to postmodern recycling), a more worried and dystopian gaze thrown on the world (as opposed to postmodernism's relative carelessness and nostalgia), etc.

This applies strikingly in several forms of art, from architecture and automobile design, up to music (both contemporary classical music as well as pop music, as is the case with an artist like David Bowie), but most importantly in cinema. Indeed, recent directors of importance like Lars Von Trier, Bruno Dumont, Gaspar Noé, Michael Haneke, but also Gus Van Sant and David Cronenberg (to name but a few), have returned to values and films that remind strongly of the much-acclaimed "Modernité", the canonical cinema of Bergman, Fellini, Welles, Antonioni...

In this context, I would like to confront the "quality" and "popularity" canons, drawing from various sources (academic classifications as well as polls in magazines) over the years, to find out whether the establishment and subsequent fading away of postmodernism has helped the current acquire some letters of nobility ; or whether, on the contrary, the re-emergence of modernism in the shape of transmodernism has locked postmodernist productions into a populist parenthesis that shall never be acknowledged by the academia as equivalent of the "great works of the past".

So far scholars' attempts (Gasparov, Cureton, etc.) to represent verse history as its evolution have not been successful due to the oblivion of the following point: evolution as such is development, i.e. gradual processing from the most abstract and simple determination of an object to its most concrete and complex one.

Here we argue that this problem can be solved if we proceed from the very concept of verse. As verse is speech whose elementary phonological unit is syllable, it is logical to view phonological characteristics of the syllable as principles of evolutionary typology of verse. It is known that every syllable has, first, melodic pitch; second, quantity or duration of sounding; third, the very quality of sounding (dynamic stress, articulation). It is also known that verse is an element of the poetic in which sound is the last stronghold of the natural in the spiritual of art presentation. That is why the sphere of sound is deprived of that independency which it has in music. Concerning verse this means that in spite of its being a sphere of sound the very development of verse presupposes emancipating from inertia of sensuality in sound.

Sensuality mostly remains in pitch, therefore it is the most external and abstract determination regarding poetic presentation, expressed in verse. As far as tonality presupposes fluctuations of the medium, verse, whose principle is pitch can be characterized as spatial. Besides, we should remember Hegel's classical differentiation of arts according to which the poetic is the most concrete form of the art ideal in comparison to the graphic and the musical. Taking into account this classification, melodic (pitch) versification corresponds to the graphic in general. That's what Chinese verse is. It is remarkable that a huge number of Chinese poets were painters, and vice versa. In this connection it is reasonable to mention the Chinese classical poet Su Shi's appraisal of his eminent predecessor Wang Wei's legacy: "There's verse in his painting, and there's painting in his verse". So, the melodic system of Chinese versification must be reckoned as the first stage of the evolutionary typology of verse.

The following determination of the syllable is quantity (duration) of its sounding. On this level spatial sensuality of sounding is negated, and negated space is time. Thus, it is obvious that quantitative verse is the species whose foundations are temporal relations. Referring this form of versification to the mentioned classifications of arts will make it clear that quantitative verse must be defined as musical, for time in the aesthetic aspect is the structure of the musical. The historical form of verse realizing this determination is antique verse, Greek and Latin, par excellence.

In the long run, qualitative sounding of the syllable is the determination by means of which sound as such emancipates from its naturality, externality in respect to presentation, thought and thus it becomes just its sign. That's why qualitative verse is the final form of verse. The structural principle of qualitative verse can be only dynamic stress as undeveloped qualitative sounding, sounding in self. But as a rule it develops its qualitative principle into a more con-crete being, e.g. alliteration, consonance, assonance or rhyme properly. Rhyme as a prosodic phenomenon in history of verse was no novelty, of course, but starting from Middle Ages rhyme became an independent metrical principle. Referring qualitative versification to the mentioned arts classification one has to state that qualitative verse is properly poetic, for the very contents of the poetic is adequately embodied in the sound form which is determined by the sensual material in the least degree. Moreover, it is well-known that qualitative versifica-tion characterizes the overwhelming majority of modern languages, and that is another evi-dence of its culminational role in the evolution of verse.

Romanticism and Gender

No matter how we interpret British literary Romanticism, we have based our constructions of British Romanticism almost exclusively upon the works and ideas of six male poets: Blake, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley, Keats and Byron. So current cultural and scholarly descriptions of the historical phenomenon we call Romanticism are gender-biased.

What happens to the interpretations of Romanticism if we study the women poets who produced in that period? According to some researches on this period, it is understood that books were widely accessible to a new and ever-growing readership, a reader-ship composed in large part of upper and middle- upperclass women who preferred to read literature, and especially poems (and also novels), written by women. It is very interesting that the female-authored literature focused on very different issues from those which concerned the canonical male Romantic poets. When the poems written by women poets are studied, it is realised thet there are significant differences between the thematic concerns, formal practices, and ideological positionings of male and female Romantic poets.

In my paper, after pointing out the differences between male and female poets, I will argue that there are many subtle distinctions that exist, not only between the men and women poets of the Romantic period, but also between one women poet and another.

Hypertext fiction has been around since the 1980s, but few critics have looked beyond the form and the technology to analyse and evaluate the stylistic features of this kind of writing. In this paper, I will be examining the use of dialogue in hypertext fiction, focusing specifically on two early examples of the form, Michael Joyce's Afternoon, and J. Yellowlees Douglas's I Have Said Nothing.

The paper will consider how far dialogue in hypertext fiction helps orient the reader in terms of characterisation and plot, but also in terms of time and place; or whether it contributes to the effect of disorientation and fragmentation that seems so characteristic of this kind of writing. The analysis will focus on the extent to which hypertext fictions adhere to the conventions of dialogue developed in the printed novel, or are influenced by 'net conventions' for the representation of speech. It will also consider how far the dialogue incorporates a variety of forms of talk, and contributes to the effect of heteroglossia theorised by Bakhtin. Another key feature of the analysis will be an exploration of the ways in which dialogue in hypertext fictions may be divorced from a fixed context, as readers navigate the text differently, and the 'same' dialogue may appear across different lexias. At the same time, the role of the narrator in orchestrating and framing the dialogue will be considered, to examine just how far this seeming freeing up of the dialogue extends. The paper will debate the role dialogue plays in contributing to the effect of interactivity that such fictions are said to produce, and will consider how often hypertext links are centred on the dialogue.

My analysis will draw on studies of fictional dialogue (e.g. Toolan, 1985) which apply terms and models derived from linguistics to fictional texts, and on work which attempts to theorise the implications of hypertext fiction as a 'new' form of narrative (e.g. Murray, 1997; Yellowlees Douglas, 2000).

Victor Shklovsky's idea that every poetic device (priem) is to become automized in due time only to be replaced by a new one or to be defamiliarized so that it could still act as the agency of "literariness" without being subject to everyday modes of perception, appeared extremely productive for the development of the 'Russian Formalists' theories of poetics and literary evolution. The latter is defined by David Perkins in "Is Literary History Possible?"(1992) as being one of "only three immanent theories (that) have any degree of plausibility and practical impact on the writing of the literary history at the present time".

Twenty years earlier Fredric Jameson argued that the defamiliarization theory is defective in its very core (The Prison House of Language). In 60-ies - 70-ies V. Shklovsky denounced many of his ideas including that of the automatization of poetic devices and conventions.

Why doesn't the theory of automatization seem to work when is closely looked at through reception theories' eyes while it appears to be proved by the very history of the twentieth century literature showing that the authors tend either to defamiliarize the 'old' devices or to replace them by the 'new' ones? The paper is aimed at settling this controversy by looking backward toward the origin of Victor Shklovsky's idea, toward the ideas of Alexander Potebnia (1835 - 1891) whose impact on Russian Formalists was evident to their contemporaries (I. Plotnicov, Bakhtin / Medvedev). Potebnia's theory of poetic characters (obraz) comes very close to the cognitive type description of the process of perception of poetic devices underlaid by conventions. Potebnia defined conventions as rules similar to those in chess that should be obeyed rather than negotiated about. Potebnia was sure that the device is effective when perceived automatically. Shklovsky reversed the idea showing numerous examples when authors 'laid bare' the device and thus called the reader's attention to the rules that underlie it.

Potebnia described the reader's side of the process while Shklovsky's point of view was distinctly that of an author, and a very self-reflective one, anxious to innovate. Shklovsky's ideas were well-timed: the beginning of the twentieth century was mesmerized by the need for innovation, and most of the authors of the time seemed to be self-reflective. Shklovsky's historical examples (L. Sterne, Cervantes, Pushkin) though being very arbitrary helped a lot in approving these ideas.

The story of post-modernism shows that a 'laid bare' device to become popular among public needs time for the rules that underlie it turn familiar due to regularity of its usage. A defamiliarized device being consciously constructed as that by a self-reflective author becomes effective i.e. adequately perceived by the reader when it is perceived automatically.

The category of approximation elaborated by mathematicians has its counterparts in language and discourse, thus reflecting the property of human reasoning to be often diffuse and fuzzy. A separate group within linguistic markers of approximation in English is constituted by metaphorically motivated compounds, adjectives with semiaffixes -looking and -like in particular. From a cognitive perspective, such adjectives, both conventional (bear-looking man, quaint-looking town) and occasional (hairlike shadow, masculine-looking room) can be modelled as a comparative frame SMTH-X is SUCH (compared to SMTH-Y), when the conceptual correlate refers to such source domains (in the order of frequency) as ARTEFACTS (telescope-like motion, scrubbed-looking skin), MAN (ladylike manners, innocent-looking mouth), FAUNA (cat-like smile, animal-like vitality), NATURAL PHENOMENA (lightninglike realization, moon-like face), PLANTS (baobab-like stature, cabbage-looking girl) and NON-HUMAN CREATURES (troll-like sound, ghost-like faces).

Given that approximation always implies some kind of evaluation, the above conceptual model of metaphorically motivated compounds, alongside with objective (referential), should incorporate the subjective dimension, that of the onlooker or observer. With regard to the observer's perspective compounds with -looking and -like fall into three microfields within the morphosemantic macrofield of comparison, those of identity, similarity and likeness. The identity microfield integrates "adj + -looking" compounds, where -looking tends to be close to hedges, while the adj-component signifies evaluation. The latter can be of four main types: 1) emotive/ aesthetic, e.g. good-looking, bad-looking, beautiful-looking; 2) approximative, e.g. likely-looking, obviously looking; 3) modal/psychological, e.g. suspicious-looking, frighteningly-looking, quaint-looking, striking-looking; 4) utalitarian, e.g. cosy-looking. The similarity microfield embraces "n + -like" compounds, where the source and target domains are part of hyper-hyponimic network and the n-component may define the part-of-the-whole's size (childlike feet), manner of action (childlike activities, lady-like manners) or the effect produced (flu-like symptoms, mirror-like shine). The likeness microfield unites such "n + -like" compounds where source and target domains are not contingent, their links are established by the observer him/herself and can be seen from the context of usage, e.g. He discovered that as soon as they weren't all looking at the same thing, his sense of godlike four- or five dimensional vision evaporated (S.King).

The development of the 20th - 21st century literature is characterized by the increasing tendency to experiments in the domain of intertextuality. Being a multi - faceted phenomenon, intertextuality comprises different modes and forms. It is impossible to cover all its aspects within the scope of the present paper. Therefore I limit myself to dealing with allusions in detective fiction. I treat allusion as one of the manifestations of intertextuality. I use it as a generic term for both references and quotations that are two forms of allusion marker.

The aim of this paper is to reveal the trends in the usage of allusion by well - known British writers and to show how allusions contribute to various aspects of their novels. I also intend to demonstrate that allusions activate in a concise and expressive form different voices and points of view making a literary work polyphonic in the Bakhtinian sense.

I start with the analysis of allusive techniques used by the Queen of Detective A. Christie. Then some novels of E. Peters, R. Rendell and C. Dexter are discussed. I try to define traditional allusive techniques in this genre and outline some modifications. In this paper I focus on verbal quotations that occur in literary discourse. They are subdivided into quotations -proper, abridged quotations and adaptations. My analysis covers allusions related to such genres as novels, poems, nursery rhymes, ballads, pop songs, etc. They may be actualized at different levels of literary discourse : character level, metatextual level (titles,epigraphs,footnotes,etc. ) and macrotextual level.

My study proves that allusion serves as one of the means of establishing writer - reader relationship of a certain type. Writers use allusions to control the degree of readers' engagement with the text. In some works of detective fiction they may be treated as attention - controlling devices of a peculiar kind.

In detective novels allusions are used for producing ironic and humorous effects, characterization, creating of a certain atmosphere and setting, as theme, genre and plot pointers, for structuring the narrative. I present a number of examples illustrating the use of allusions in each of the distinguished functions. I also touch upon some problems related to their translation.

It is generally thought that cultures influence the way in which people think, act, or feel. But do they also read differently? Is it the case that cultures also steer their members´ reading habits? To investigate this question, a study was undertaken to compare the responses of readers from different cultures to the same texts.

More concretely, the present paper is based on an empirical study, which took place last summer at the university of Munich. The main hypothesis investigated was that readers coming from an Islamic culture tend to search more intensively for a moral message, while reading a literary text compared to readers coming from a Western culture. Four groups of students belonging to different nationalities participated in the study. Each of these groups came from a different continent, representing either an Islamic or a Western culture. U.S. and German students are representatives of the Western world, while North-African and Turkish students represent the Islamic world.

Participants read three texts ( a paragraph taken from the novel "Faith, love, air-condition" written by Aysel Özakin, a poem with the title " Her Will and his Will" written by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and the fable "Frog and mouse" from Martin Luther) and gave their responses to a number of questions investigating to what extent the reading of these texts triggered moral questions, or to what extent readers were in search of moral messages. The main criterion for the selection of these texts was the fact that they contain not only explicit but also implicit moral messages. Moreover, each of them represents a different text genre. Another important role was also the fact that the texts were written by authors who are influenced not only by Western but also by Islamic culture.

In this way it was possible to answer the above question about differences in reading habits between cultures in general, and about moral message searching in literary texts in particular. The results are of great interest concerning the dependence of reading patterns on cultural factors.

Traditionally, the emotional impact of texts could be assessed only on the basis of individual or group reactions to texts. While this method can be made more rigorous by applying the methodology of the social sciences, in which sampling techniques are combined with statistical analysis, there are also new perspectives that can be explored. One such new development lies in the quantification of textual features itself. The current research entails a contribution to the development of a model that allows one to predict emotional reactions of readers to texts purely on the basis of a textual analysis.

The paper concentrates on the problem of determining the emotional valence of (literary) texts. The ability to do so is based on frequency counts of words that compose it. Basically, the assumption is that the proportion of `positive` and `negative` words (as explicitly so defined prior to the investigation by a thesaurus) reflects the amount of positive or negative emotional involvement with the text on the part of the reader. This is an attractive option for both students and authors of texts.

The principal goal of this study is to improve the efficiency of the technique based on an existing thesaurus, but also to increase our knowledge of the functions of emotions in language. The results will cast light on the validity of such predictive models and their interrelationship with the experience of reading. As such, the implementation of this research allows a significant improvement of textual analysis methods over traditional approaches.

Through a detailed comparative analysis of instances of metaphor in the context of newspaper interviews and spontaneous interaction in Spanish, this paper explores metaphor and how it can affect the interaction. Its main premise is that the acts of uttering and interpreting a metaphor involve traces of metapragmatic awareness, that is, the reflection on language as a code and its use (Verschueren 1999). In this paper, I follow recent claims on the need for a holistic approach to metaphor (Cameron, 2003) as well as the interpretation of metaphor as a kind of deictic phenomenon (Stern, 2000), but a metapragmatic approach will appear to have more explanatory power for questions such as the relationship between cognition and communication, and for the study of the metaphorical utterances in interaction.

The analysis of metaphors will show that uttering and interpreting a metaphor appear to be explicitly or implicitly accompanied with acts of reflecting on the meaning of the utterance and its use. First, I will focus in the use of "metaphorical markers" (see Goatly 1997) such as "literalmente" ('literally') or "como si dijéramos" ('as one can say'). I will identify them as strategies the utterer has, for instance, to signal and identify the distance between the explicit and implicit meaning, to restrict the possibility for the utterance to be reinterpreted, and to identify a conventional metaphor with a particular context. Analogous to these strategies, the interpreter of a metaphorical utterance can adopt strategies, such as reinterpretation, avoidance of implicit meaning or giving alternative metaphors. The interpreters' strategies also show some degree of metapragmatic awareness as they evaluate the implications of the meanings associated to metaphorical conceptualizations.

Within the framework of recent metapragmatic research (see Silverstein 1993, Verschueren 1999, and Reyes 2002), conventional and creative metaphors are phenomena whose meaning is fundamentally implicit, and, therefore, their additional meanings need to be signaled. As such, acts of reflexivity and its use and other factors (such as frames, scripts and gestuality) play a major role in the acts of metaphorical utterance and interpretation.

Hakemulde, Jemeljan

Zyngier, Sonia

In the past it has often been argued (by Berlyne, Martindale) that novelty plays an important role in the creation of foregrounding and the experience of beauty. However, few studies have investigated the relationship directly. And to our knowledge, no intercultural research has been undertaken so far.

The present paper reports on an experiment in which the lines of a poem were manipulated, so that a pattern of repetition was set up, which was unexpectedly broken in the final line. The text was presented line after line. After each line presentation, readers marked their sense of 'beauty' of the poem on an 11-point interval scale. Participants from 5 cultures (Brazil, Egypt Germany, the Netherlands, Ukraine) provided their ratings. The results cast a light 1) on the relationship between novelty and the experience of beauty and 2) on similarities and differences regarding this relation in different cultures.

In line with some theories in the psychology of literature, we conjectured that texts of high complexity would be evaluated higher on a second reading than texts of a lower or middle complexity. We therefore presented participants in an experiment with three texts of different degrees of complexity, and asked them to rate these texts on a number of dependent variables. The level of complexity of the texts was determined by experts (with high interrater reliability)

The texts were presented to the participants without names of authors or any other information that would allow identification. As dependent variables the following questions were asked (after Dixon and Bortolussi 1994):

1. Is this an example of good literature?

2. Did you enjoy reading this story?

3. Would you recommend this story to someone else to read?

Furthermore, participants were requested to rate each of the three texts in general on a 7-point scale containing the following items: boring, complex, deep, intense, powerful, rich, senseless, striking, tiresome, trivial, unimportant, weak.

After having read the three texts and having filled out the questions, subjects were requested to once more read the texts and again fill out the questions. Texts and questions were identical to the first time, only at the end of the questionnaire we also asked them to fill out their sex, age, and how many hours a week they spent on leisure reading of literature. The hypothesis is that the more complex of the texts will be rated higher on a second than on a first reading; the opposite is predicted for the text with the lowest complexity. The results will cast light on the role complexity plays in processing and evaluation literary texts.

Post-colonial authors attempt to redeem, reinvent, regain or appropriate master narratives in order to bridge the discrepancy between present and past. These counter discursive strategies seek to create alternative discourses in which the boundaries between literature and life, and the dialectic between history and fiction can be narrowed or erased. This type of rewriting presents the reader with new perspectives on the past and creates alternative ways of dealing with the present and the future; it establishes alternative discourses in order to '…define…images of identity, community, of history, of place' (Lawson, 1995: 168).

Various post-colonial authors revisit Victorian fiction in order to present the reader with an alternative reality to that of the realist fiction of Victorian England, which (even within the modern consciousness) serves as a source of reference and a benchmark when it comes to defining British space and identity, as well as its influence in the colonies. The post-colonial novelist who revisits the Victorian novel does not merely emulate the social concerns depicted in the realist writing of Victorian fiction. With the use of counter-strategies, other issues of realist writing are foregrounded.

The abrogation and appropriation of traditional Victorian literary and social perceptions and representations, by means of counter-discursive and subversive strategies, challenges the underlying assumptions and ontology of the British / Imperialist master-narrative of history. This process allows and creates alternative discourses and narratives that represent, redefine and converge specific identities and spaces in a manner that allows the reader to interpret and perceive the text in a way that allows formation of new / alternative identities.

In his novel Jack Maggs (1997), Carey provides an interesting angle to the post-colonial re-writing of master narratives. Carey reflects on the Victorian novel and covertly subverts its representation of hegemonic ideologies that marginalize peripheral characters and societies. Finding the realist writing somewhat one-sided, Carey creates a complex narrative structure by approaching his novel from an ideological perspective that is mitigated by the introduction of narrative strategies such as emplotment, the introduction of multiple narrators (polyphony), intertextuality, various dimensions of focalization and a reflection upon generic form.

This paper will present a brief overview of Carey's use of polyphony and intertextuality as narrative strategies which results in a narrative structure that contributes to the perception that characters' identities are inseparable from the spatial and temporal dimensions of the narrative world they occupy.

The cognitive turn in linguistic and literary research entails a further elaboration of close reading techniques that jointly outline a new metamethod of literary text analysis and interpretation. Comparing a more established semiotic metamethod, which, according to Scholes (Scholes 1982), integrates Todorov's grammar of fiction, Genette's rhetoric of fiction and Barthes's semiotic of fiction, to a still crystallizing metamethod of literary text conceptual analysis, highlights the fundamental difference in the perspectives taken. While the semiotic approach heavily relies on the notion of codes in their logically consequent unfolding, the cognitive approach brings to the foreground the idea of web or network as a flexible configuration of various formats of knowledge, whether conceptual tropes, or mental spaces, or schemata. Applying to James Joyce's "Eveline", a short story from his Dubliners, whose insightful semiotic interpretation was suggested by Robert Scholes, a set of conceptual analysis techniques, which embrace construing conceptual metaphor clusters, tracing the dynamics of mental spaces and building the dominant conceptual integration network, makes salient a still stronger implication than that inferred by Scholes. From a semiotic perspective, "Eveline" stands out as 'a story of paralysis' where the protagonist, a typical Dubliner 'who never decides and never escapes', finally loses basic capacities for cognition and articulation, becoming 'absolutely incommunicado'. From a cognitive perspective, "Eveline" ultimately turns into a story of fear and death, where the heroine who rejects elopement and thus her only chance to change her life for the better, changes it for the worse, surrendering to a lifelong jail of her father's dusty house, of Irish Catholicism dogmas, and her innate fear of life. Widening the scope of "Eveline"'s prototypical reading is prompted by the ubiquitous presence in the texture of two image schemas, that of a bounded region and that of a container. The conceptual metaphors LIFE IS WATER and LIFE IS MOTION, associated with Eveline's fiancé, are in sharp contrast with DEATH IS LACK OF MOTION/ IMMOBILITY, DEATH IS DUST and DEATH IS BEING LOCKED IN A CONTAINER. Given this, the phrase Everything changes (end of the second paragraph) suddenly acquires a special prominence, referring both back, to the mention of those who are dead or away, and forth, to Eveline's presumable departure, her leaving home to become happy. Thus, the ambivalence of the word change, which gets linked to both life and death, giving rise, via the respective conceptual integration network, to the emergent meaning "if you are afraid of changing your life for the better, it will change for the worse".

My paper is simply a prospectus, a prolegomena to research I wish to instigate on the discourse of spiritualist mediums. I suspect that this is indeed a 'novel' kind of discourse to analyse. My interest stems from two approaches: (1) an obsession of my own with a rhetorical communicative 'dyad' that involves speakers addressing non-human addressees (apostrophe), and those responding (prosopopeia) (Wales, 2002); and (2) the work done by Short & Semino (Routledge, forthcoming) on speech and thought presentation in relation to the autobiography of a famous British medium called Doris Stokes. I wish to analyse the conventions of a 'medium' 'addressing' the 'spirits' of the dead, and the dead allegedly 'responding', both directly and indirectly. In one sense this is an ideal or metaphorical process; in another, possibly an aspect of the impossibility of expressing the ineffable. I would like to expand Short & Semino's framework to take into account such work as Bell's on 'audience design'; and like them to take into account, and question, Possible World Theory, and the argument that there is a distinct ontological boundary between the 'real' world and the 'spirit' world. My research will take in not only autobiographies, but actual spiritualist events, hopefully, to an actual audience; and I wish also to look at the history of spiritualism; and literary representations of communicating 'to the Other Side'. Since my paper is only a prospectus, I will be looking for suggestions for references, etc from conference participants.

From its inception, criticism of books for children and young adults has tended to be reader-centred. Early reviewers of fiction for the young had little to say about the aesthetic qualities of the books themselves, focusing almost exclusively on their suitability in terms of subject matter. Where attention was paid to aspects of style, this usually centred on pedagogical criteria, such as the accessibility of the language used for the target readership. The so-called second golden age of children's literature in the 1960s and 1970s saw the emergence of serious academic interest in stylistic aspects of fiction for children and young adults. One particularly interesting strand of criticism is one that has sought to develop a distinct aesthetic for children's books (Hunt 1991; Hollindale 1997; Rudd 2000). More recently, the emergence of crossover fiction, by writers such as Philip Pullman and Mark Haddon, has rendered these efforts problematic. This paper will review past and current controversies in the field and will conclude by outlining possible ways in which cognitive poetics may offer a fruitful way forward.

The sociologist and language theorist Pierre Bourdieu described social action (including language use) in terms of positions within a field. Positions are taken within a particular social field as a function of all the possible positions and the dipositions of the actors as they are enacted in structurally marked practices. That speaking entails taking a position in the world is an opinion shared by Russian formalist M.M. Bakhtin, "With each literary-verbal performance, consciousness must actively orient itself amidst heteroglossia, it must move in and occupy a position for itself within it, it chooses, in other words a 'language'." While Bakhtin uses the word "language" more generally, in the case of a bilingual speaker it can be taken quite literally. Literary code-switching can thus be understood as a means of structurally marking such position-taking by a character in the work. The identities of bilingual individuals have often been viewed according to a model of hybridity. For post-colonial theorist Homi Bhabha the process of hybridization illuminates the extent to which constructs, which seem at first dialectically opposed, are revealed to be two sides of the same theoretical coin. Bakhtin, on the other hand, sees hybridization in the novel as a means of sharpening the socio-linguistic differentiation, and exposing an endless multitude of irresolvable confrontations. In literary treatments of the German occupied Netherlands during World War II both notions of hybridity seem applicable for the variety of positions the figures take. Simon Vestdijk's novel Pastorale 1943, which incorporates extensive amounts of both Dutch and German, provides an opportunity to analyze how code-switching charts the position-takings of bilingual characters and what this reveals about their split identities.

Pastorale 1943 first appeared in October of 1945 - less than three months after the end of the Second World War. At the center of the work stand the wartime experiences of a German teacher, Johan Schults, a Dutchman of German background whose family fights for Hitler, while he is helping to hide a group from the Nazis. Through the life of Schults, Pastorale 1943 looks critically at the state of the postwar Netherlands and questions the growing myth of the Dutch resistance following the German occupation. The Netherlands was not just a land that Hitler hoped to annex by invading the Netherlands, but was considered by the Nazis to be part of the Aryan Volk. By casting the Dutch as the resistors, they became by definition non-German and discursively these two nationalities were often treated as if they were dialectically. The figure Schults, whose hybrid identity is not easily contained within national borders or a single national language, complicates this picture.

Through the use of code-switching between Dutch and German, Pastorale 1943 critiques not only the resistance, but the binary categorization which lies at the basis of post-war discourse about the resistance in the Netherlands. This same binarity is at the root of the notion of hybridity in both Bhabha and Bakhtin's models. The position-takings, which are often marked by language choice in this work, encourage an alternate, more dynamic model of bilingual identity.

My paper will discuss the pragmatic role of direct discourse of characters in Japanese oral storytelling art called Rakugo (Morioka & Heinz 1990). In particular, the pragmatic significance of voice manipulation in the humorous genre is examined. Narrative often includes not only the voice of the narrator, but also multiple voices of the characters in the story. In previous linguistic studies of narrative, direct discourse has been understudied while researchers paid attention to narration out of the interests in narrowly focused grammatical phenomena, such as pronominalization, reflexivization and use of zero anaphors. Discourse studies of narrative analyzed elicited recounting or spontaneous conversational narrative as their data of spoken narrative. In contrast, I have examined well-rehearsed storytelling in order to investigate the range of linguistic patterns used in spoken narrative.

I will show that character's direct discourse has relatively lower reliability in establishing the major narrative actions, such as introducing characters into a story. Second, I will demonstrate that the extensive use of direct discourse in this particular genre is exploited for the purpose of creating effective punchlines.

There are three different ways in which characters are brought into a story via direct discourse: 1) the direct discourse of a character mentions other characters in his speech; 2) the character presents itself as a voice by speaking without being mentioned before; 3) by being addressed by another character. The characters introduced, however, have different pragmatic statuses depending on the type of voices used. What is introduced in the narrator's voice can not be cancelled by discourse that follows, while the characters that enter the story by way of direct discourse of other characters need validation by either narration or by the other characters. In this sense, status of characters' voices have lower reliability (Yamaguchi 1988).

Because of the lower reliability and fidelity of direct discourse of characters, information that can be cancelled, or a point of view that can be overturned at the punchline is best conveyed through direct discourse, rather than the narrator's voice. This is because the narrator is bound by the pragmatic fidelity principle, which prevents him from misleading the audience.

This paper pays particular attention to the manner in which female blues artists talk to their audience about love, in both an intangible, metaphysical sense and a more earthier sense. It is an extension of the preliminary work of Kuhn (1999), who briefly examined the lyrics of male blues singers, and Watson (2004), who applied a revised version of Tyrmi's (2003) model to investigate the expression of love and sexuality in the lyrics of pre-1950s female blues singers.

Kuhn's study concentrated on the seductive strategies of male blue lyrics and applied speech act theory to her limited corpus (5 songs, by 2 artists). Although a very interesting study, the preliminary nature of the study necessarily made it limited in depth and scope. This paper aims to extend Kuhn's enquiry by examining, in greater detail, the seductive strategies and other acts of love expressed in the lyrics sung by early female blues artists.

It is, and has generally been, perceived that female artists are less risqué and less assertive in requesting their needs, and that they are more genteel in expressing their desires and feelings. Watson (2004) disproved this assumption. I found that these women were direct in stating their needs, either for love or sexual gratification and had no qualms about stating these needs.

In this research, I further investigate how these women express their needs and wants by applying Searle's (1969; 1976; 1979) speech act theory to the lyrics of early female blues singers, and I pay particular attention to the use of assertives, directives, and commissives. This methodology is applied to a randomly selected computerised corpus of female blues artists totalling 111 songs by 40 different artists, who pre-date the 1950s. Like Kuhn (1999), I am particularly interested in arriving at a fuller understanding of how it is that as we listen to the blues we feel that these lyrics "talk" to us and I am especially interested in proposing a pragmatic taxonomy of acts of love.

T. S. Eliot's earliest verse is composed of observations, detached, ironic, and alternatively disillusioned and nostalgic in tone. The title of his "Prufrock and Other Observations" is significant, which immediately suggests the observer and an objective attitude. These observations are made to convey feelings rather than novel perceptions of the social scene. Eliot's mingling of subtle observation with unexpected cliche represents a difficulty that is often magnified because too much 'obscurity' is assumed. Obscurity may come from confusion of ideas, involved thinking, or irrelevant association. Eliot is not obscure in any of these senses. This paper aims at clarifying the 'obscurity' by means of a stylistic analysis of the linguistic devices that the poet used to create "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" and its intended meaning. Adopting the concept of style as 'foregrounding', the idea that style is constituted by departures from linguistic norms, it analyzes the poem in terms of its lexical foregrounding, and that of style as 'choice', the idea that style is constituted by choices of linguistic devices, it analyzes the poem in terms of its syntactic choices. This paper claims that it is the systematic foregrounding or violation of the norm of the standard which makes possible the poetic utilization of language. Without seeing foregrounding as a poet's linguistic device, there could be no poetry for the poet or no possible understanding of poems for the reader. It also claims that stylistically significant syntactic choices by the poet serve effectively the intended meaning.

This stylistic analysis shows that Eliot's psychological observation translates imaginative symbols carried by words into psychic symbols and substitutes meanings qualified by emotion or feeling for those defined by the poem. The 'meaning' is the synthesis which the reader will be able to make, for here Eliot is working in a complex of associations which, by their vivid and concrete nature, enables us to see a constant value. But the meaning will not be a constant, and it will vary for each reader according to the value he gives to the connotation within the boundaries 'fixed' by the poet. But the reader will be 'obscured' and lose the 'meaning' of the poem if he cannot catch the connotations of each of the poetic symbols or images presented by the words within their 'psychological' context. In addition, the analysis shows that syntactic choices made by the poet are stylistically significant in the sense that they serve to accomplish the subject matter. The basic functions of certain syntactic structures, and also the features of tense, aspect, and mood, can be exploited for stylistic purposes. This study has proved to a certain extent that linguistic analysis is one of the most effective ways of showing a poet's stylistic choices in order for the reader to understand and appreciate the poetic message or meaning most possibly intended by the poet.

Through image schemas, conceptual metaphors, and the parabolic, Louise Gluck weaves together a masterful heteronomous tapestry in her Pulitzer prize-winning book of poetry, The Wild Iris. These poems cannot be fully appreciated unless read as a whole. From the first line of "The Wild Iris" to the last line of "The White Lilies," the poems resonate in chorus with the cycles of life and death; hope and despair; heaven and earth--all with the gardener protagonist caught in the middle, hanging on for dear life.

This paper explores the themes which were foregrounded for me through my own readerly response, as well as themes foregrounded by Gluck through repetition and the use of conceptual metaphor. The most striking element in the text, and thus the dominant element, is voice, which becomes the trajector carrying the themes throughout the poems. The titles of the poems are the "attractors" (Stockwell 18), drawing our attention to the newness of the voices.

The image schema of the garden gives the reader the "basic templates" (Stockwell 16) for understanding the voices. The element of voice is the figure, the trajectory, moving over, under, and in relation to the ground or landmark, the garden. The familiar pattern of the garden is defamiliarized by the projection of the human voice through the garden beneath and the creator above, all circling back to the gardener who gives them voice.

Parabolic projection is the major force contributing to the power of this poetry. The macrostructures of depression and the despair of separation are set in place from the very beginning. This paper traces the parabolic projection throughout the collection of poems. Image schemas and the parabolic take shape in the reader's mind early on in the reading of The Wild Iris. The depth and power of schemas and the parabolic, however, are carried out fully and continually through Gluck's use of conceptual metaphor. The two metaphors to be discussed are PEOPLE ARE PLANTS and LIFE IS A JOURNEY. These conceptual metaphors construct the heteronomous network tied together by the "horticulture of the garden" and "the passage of a single growing season" (Townsend 53).

This paper investigates the hypothesis that there is potential for stylistics to make much greater use of language corpora and the techniques of corpus linguistics.

Stylistics, by one commonly understood definition, is a field of empirical inquiry, in which the insights and techniques of linguistic theory are used to illuminate literary texts. The empirical bent of stylistics of this kind appears to make it particularly well-suited to the use of language corpora. There are several historical and institutional reasons why this has not happened. Existing software and techniques are not sufficiently robust and user-friendly. There are some stylisticians for who computational procedures are a a step too far. As well as the technical barriers, there is a justifiable fear of an excessive focus on the computational procedures and on the encoding and annotation of electronic texts, to the detriment of adequate accounts of textuality and meaning.

Two basic approaches to stylistics using language corpora can be described. One takes an electronic version of the text or texts to be studied, and conducts a thorough and exhaustive analysis of the particular feature or features of the text(s) annotates the text in a systematic way. There are typically two outcomes of this process: (i) the exhaustive analysis of a whole text, accounting for all cases and forcing the analyst to test and refine the system of categorisation, and (ii) statistics relating to frequency and co-occurrence of forms can then be extracted from the annotated text. This approach is typified by the work at Lancaster University on the forms of speech, though and writing presentation in a corpus of texts.

A second approach is to study literary effects in texts by using the evidence of language norms in a reference corpus. These effects may be deviations from the norms of language use, which can be established or verified by looking at a relevant corpus. A related area of increasing interest is the notion of 'semantic prosody'. Computational techniques can show patterns of co-occurrence of lexical items (collocations) and grammatical forms (colligations). The work of Bill Louw and John Sinclair are of particular importance in this area, although as yet there is little published work on the analysis of literature employing these methods.

It will be argued that the greater availability of electronic texts and language corpora, and the availability of analysis software which presents fewer technical hurdles will help disentangle the technical barriers from the philosophical objections, and create possibilities for further insights into literary language aided by language corpora and computational techniques.

Language teaching generally emphasises the communicative or referential function, and strives for transparence: clear exchange of information, conventionally regulated cooperation in conversation, learnable rules. In real life, however, speakers often face multiple meanings, rationally not decipherable ambiguities, feelings about texts and unexpected irregularities. Language through literature can offer a taste of those opaque, very personal, yet authentic uses of the target language if supplemented with stylistic guidance. This guidance is needed so as not to stray too far, and to discover patterns of form and meaning hiding in the text that a native reader might be influenced by. If the following advertisement and news item appeared in a newspaper, referential clarity were in order. But it comes from Örkény's One Minute Stories, and thus referential creativity can be practised with them:

"Classified Advertisement, (nostalgia) Most urgently exchange two-room, third floor apartment with built-in kitchen cabinet on Joliot Curie Square overlooking Eagle Peak for two-room, third floor apartment with built-in kitchen cabinet on Joliot Curie square overlooking Eagle Peak. Money no object."

"Official govenment report published in the wake of the triumph of the principles of communism. According to a recent statement by government spokesman Károly K. Károly, István Balogh, Sr., stable boy at the Bábolna State Farm Co-operative, has just started his yearly regular vacation. (The Hungarian News Agency)"

This talk examines how aspects of reference can be exploited in a language through literature class, using pedagogical stylistics, and within that primarily the Gricean maxims. The main contentions of the talk are:

1. Pedagogical stylistics enables the teacher to provide simplified, text-directed stylistic guidance to language learners.

2. Stylistically guided creativity enhances personal emotional/expressive involvement and fosters intercultural sensitivity.

3. Stylistic guidance requires several re-readings of the texts, drawing attention to their representational quality and making them memorable.

Nowadays most people in Germany hardly know the works of the classical authors, including those by Schiller. However, in the 19th century his verses were the talk of the town. One century long Friedrich Schiller accompanied German people on the ways of national and artistic happenings. Such a popularity change of an author is typical in literary and cultural history. In the 19th century Schiller was actually considered as the "banner bearer" of the German middle class. In my paper the reception of Schiller's works is explained in its social context and its causal connections.

It is first described that there were two climaxes of Schiller's reception in the 19th century. The first climax of the reception was at the time of the war of liberation against Napoleon (1806 -1815). The second "Schiller wave" was contemporaneous with the development of the civil political movement. The social bearer of that reception was the middle class. From the view of the middle class Schiller became the guardian of the individual, and the embodiment of German nature. The utopian ideal in his works leads to the self-image and consciousness of the developing middle class. Particularly the sayings from his works serve as an important subject of his reception. Concise formulations and descriptions are isolated from the complete texts and inserted into new situations. They are associated with the most diverse pragmatic contexts.

The discrepancy between the popularity and an appropriate understanding of the author is a central topic in the history of reception. The popularity of his works almost prevents their understanding. Quotes from his works are rated negatively by the researcher as trivial, and seen as blind enthusiasm of the people. The admiration of Schiller functions as a replacement of religion as well as civil-political and national integration instruments. In the Social-Democratic Party (SPD) the adoration of Schiller follows the civil liberal character of Schiller's works: the workers are to become subjects in the Schiller's works.

From Schiller's popularity results a possible social function of literature. The analysis of literary reception in its social context creates the basis for the historical function of literature. In the opinion of the Konstanzer School the literary reception is considered as dialogical interaction between the reader and text. It is affected by historical and sociological circumstances.

My paper will present relevant reception documents, which show an important contribution for the social development in Germany in the 19th century.

Under the perspective of the cultural comparison a view of the Schiller reception is thrown in China at the end of my paper. The reception of Schiller's works, above all Schiller's dramas, doesn't take place there in such a civil society like in Germany. Nevertheless, the reception of Schiller manifests itself in certain political and social events in the 20th century in China. The specific function of the Schiller dramas is based on the revolutionary elements of the works, which formed also a basis for the reception in Germany.